59th Cbro 
2d Session 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 






U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BURHAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
A. D. MELVIN, Chief ok BUREAU. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



ON 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



Dr». PEARSON, MICH EN ER, LAW, HARBACGH, TRUMBOWER, I.IUTAKD, 
HOUOMBK. HU1DEKOPBR, STILl>. HOHLBR, INO \l»AMS. 



REVISED EDITION. 




WASHINGS »N: 

K \ M B NT PRINTING 01 

•7- 



/ 



59th Congress ) 
2d Session ( 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 



I I kKXJMBNT 

1 No. 795 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 
A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau. 






SPECIAL REPORT 



DISEASES OE THE HORSE!. 



Drs. PEARSON, MICHBNBR, LAW. B.ARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIADTARD, 
HOLCOMBE, BUIDBKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AM) ADAMS 



REVISED EDITION. 




WASHINGTON : 

GOV B K N M B N T PR I N T I NO P PICK, 

I 907. 






FEB 24 19C3 

D. or D. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Animal Industry, 
Washington, D. C, Aprils, 1907. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a copy of the Special 
Report on Diseases of the Horse prepared for reprinting in accord- 
ance with the following resolution, approved March 4, 1907: 

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 
Congress assembled, That there be printed and bound in cloth two hundred and fifty 
thousand copies of the special report on diseases of horses, with accompanying illus- 
trations, the same to be first revised and brought to date under the supervision of 
the Secretary of Agriculture, one hundred and seventy-five thousand for the use of 
the House of Representatives, sixty thousand for the use of the Senate, and fifteen 
thousand for the use of the Department of Agriculture. 

As the work was thoroughly revised in 1903, it has been found 
necessary to make only a slight revision at this time. A brief chapter 
on "Osteoporosis, or big-head,' 1 by Dr. John R. Mohler, Chief of the 
Pathological Division of this Bureau, has been added. 

This report was first issued in 1890 and was at once accorded a 
hearty reception by the horse owners of the country. The limited 
edition that the Department was able to publish was very soon 
exhausted, and the demand was then turned upon Members of Con- 
gress. As a result of the continuous demand Congress has ordered 
reprints from time to time until the total editions, including that 
provided for by the above resolution, approximate 900,000 copies. 

Very respectfully, 

A. D. Melvin, 

Ch ief of Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

3 



CONTENTS. 



Tlie examination of a sick horse, Page. 

By Leonard Pearson, B. S. , V. M. D 9 

Methods of administering medicines, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 28 

Diseases of the digestive organs, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 34 

Diseases of the urinary organs, 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 75 

Diseases of the respirator y organs, 

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 104 

Diseases of the generative organs, 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S ]42 

Diseases of the nervous system , 

By M. R. Trum bower, V. S 190 

Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics, 

By M. R. Trumbower, V. S 225 

Diseases of the eye, 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 251 

Lameness, 

By A. Liautard, M. D.,.V. S 274 

Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, 

By A. A. Holcombe, D. V. S 369 

Diseases of the skin, 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 431 

Wounds and (heir treatment, 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 459 

General diseases, 

By Rush Shippen Huidekoper, M. IX, Vet 482 

Surra, 

By Ch. Wardeli, Stiles, Ph. D 548 

Osteoporosis or bighead, 

By John R. Mohler, V. M. D 554 

Shoeing, 

By John W. Adams, A. B., V. M. D 559 

Index 583 

5 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATES. 

Page. 

Plate I. Digestive apparatus 74 

II. Bots 74 

III. Intestinal worms 74 

IV. Longitudinal section through kidney 76 

V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 

VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 

VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88 

VIII. Position of the left lung 128 

IX. Instruments used in difficult labor 166 

X. Normal presentations 166 

XI. Abnormal presentations ' (;,i 

XII. Abnormal presentations 166 

XIII. Abnormal presentations 176 

XIV. Abnormal presentations 176 

XV. Anterior presentations 176 

XVI. The nervous system 1 92 

XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 228 

XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 228 

XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye 256 

XX. Skeleton of the horse 288 

XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 288 

XXII. Splint ■ 288 

XXIII. Ringbone 304 

XXIV. Various types of spavin 304 

XXV. Bone spavin 336 

XXVI. Bone spavin 336 

XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 336 

XXVIII. The sling in use 336 

XXIX. Anatomy of foot 372 

XXX. Anatomy of foot 372 

XXXI. Quarter crack and remedies 372 

XXXII. Sound and contracted feet 3/2 

XXXIII. Foundered feet -116 

XXXIV. Ringbone and navicular disease 416 

XXXV. Diseases of the skin 432 

XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 448 

XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 

XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 

XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 532 

XL. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers. 532 
XLI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing 

cicatrices 532 



8 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

TEXT I'll. I RES. 

Page. 

Fig. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the "regular" form 566 

2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 567 

.'!. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe- wide standing position 567 

-1. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. 568 

5. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a 

stumpy fore foot 568 

6. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too 

lung a toe 570 

7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe 574 

8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 575 

9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 577 

1 1). A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 577 

11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "three- 

quarter" shoe • r >78 

12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with 

a plain ' ' dropped crease " shoe 578 

13. Hoof surface i >f a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 579 

14. ( iround surface of shoe shown in fig. 13 579 

1."). Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" 

in a " forger " •">*() 

1 6. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger 580 

17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 581 

18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action 

in fore feet 581 



SPECIAL REPORT 



ON 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 

By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D., 

Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State 

Veterinarian of Pennsylvania. 

In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method, 
or system. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel 
reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important 
point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to 
arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of 
course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight 
alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to 
the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that 
exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a 
knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that 
is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, 
and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at 
the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember 
that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ- 
ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. 
The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral 
depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de- 
gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough- 
bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy 
draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the 
diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. 

The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to 
be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the 
purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several 
writers. 



10 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

HISTORY. 

It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and 
development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for. 
The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag- 
nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food 
that the horse has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind 
of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be 
found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged 
food, such as brewer's grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- 
cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- 
acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has 
been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon 
full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind 
legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial 
paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident 
symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it 
is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has 
been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in 
connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, 
under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous 
pneumonia. 

It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is 
under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises 
that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are 
afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common 
cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. 

Another item of importance in connection with the history of the 
case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he 
is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive 
quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is 
important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica- 
tion that has been employed. 

ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. 

Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid 
to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes 
horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. 
For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck, 
and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. 
This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse- 
quently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse 
with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat 
bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The 
neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face 
is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a 
little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOBSE. 11 

previous position. In Inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo- 
laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between 
the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible 
to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon ili«' throat. 
In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the bead and 
the stupid expression arc rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito- 
nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the 
rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid 
pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. 

The horse may be dow n in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- 
tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison- 
ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, 
such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in 
unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic 
may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place 
that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie 
down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath- 
ing, the horse know- that he can manage himself better upon his feet 
than upon his breast or bis side. It happen-, therefore, that in nearly 
all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist- 
ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing i-; 
easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there 
i- stiffness and soreness of the muscles, a- in rheumatism, inflamma- 
tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the hone- m osteoporosis, <>r 
<d" the feet in founder, or where the muscles are -till' and beyond con- 
trol of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position i- maintained, 
because the horse seems t<> realize that when he lies down he will he 
unable to arise. 

Abnormal attitude- are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive 
organs (colic). A horse with colic may -it upon his haunches, like a 
dog, or may stand upon hi- hind feet ami rest upon hi- knee- in front, 
or may endeavor to balance himself upon his hack, with all four feet 
iii the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from 
pain by lessening pressure, or ten-ion. upon the sensitive structures. 

Under the general condition of the animal it i- necessary to observe 
the condition, or state, of nutrition; the conformation, so far a- it may 
indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the 
condition of nutrition one may he able to determine to a certain extent 
the effect that the di-ea-e ha- already had upon the animal ami to esti- 
mate the amount of strength that remain- and that will he available 
\'<<v the repair of the diseased tissues. V good condition of nutrition 
i- shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softne 

the -kin. and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat ha- di-ap 

peared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominence 
stand out : if the skin is tight ami inelastic and the coat dry and harsh, 
we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. Tin- may have resulted 



12 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper food 
and care. Where an animal is emaciated — that is, becomes thin — 
there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing 
the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to 
the duration of the unfavorable conditions that the animal has lived 
under. 

By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to 
withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution 
depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction 
that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest, 
allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that 
these vital organs are well developed ; capacious abdomen, alloAving 
sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins 
should be short — that is, the space should be short between the last rib 
and the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded, 
without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. 
The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and 
good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the 
shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of 
strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not 
loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight and their 
axes are parallel ; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the 
forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The 
cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from, 
side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of 
the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, 
tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. 
Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to 
resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the 
other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, 
small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, 
small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms, 
small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with 
flat soles. 

The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse 
responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when 
he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds 
actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nerv- 
ous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, 
sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, tempera- 
ment. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression 
of the face, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of 
the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to 
ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general 
expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a 
large extent on the temperament. 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 13 

THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MTJCOU8 MEMBRANES. 

The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the 
animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of 
the skin have been referred to above. There is no pari of the body 
thai Loses its elasticity and tone as a resull of disease sooner than the 
skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a greal deal of 
information as to the condition of an animal merely by grasping th • 
coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of 
the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the 
mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a 
resull of disease* or of inappropriate food the mucous membranes 
become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can he seen tnosl 

readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the Lining of the nostril. 
For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily he excited. 
Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness 
occurs physiologically in painful condition-, excitement, ind follow- 
ing severe exertion. Qnder such condition- the increase of circula- 
tion is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the 
mucous membrane, and this continue- so long as the fever Lasts. In 
some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane. 
This usually indicates an infections disease of considerable severity, 
and occur- in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagi 
septicemia, and in urticaria. When the Liver is deranged and does 
not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as 
in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the 
mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish of blue 
when the Mood is imperfect ly oxidized and contain- an excess of 
carbon dioxide. This condition exists in any serious disease of the 
respiratory tract, a- pneumonia, and in heart failure. 

The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the 
body. If there i- fever the temperature of the skin is Likely to be 
increased. Sometimes, however, as a resull of poor circulation and 
irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than 
normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) max be cold. 
Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident thai 
the small blood vessels in the -kin have contracted and are keeping 
the blood away, a- during a chill, or that the heart is weak and i- 
unable to pump the blood to tin surface, and that the animal i- <>n the 

verge of collapse. 

The -kin i- moist, to a certain degree, a1 all time- in a healthy horse. 
This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, hut it i- 
enough to keep the -kin pliable and to cause the hair to have a -oft. 
healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the 
-kin becomes dry. In this case the hair ha- a harsh feel thai is quite 
differenl from the condition observed in health, and from the fact o| 



14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, 
they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as " a staring 
coat.'' When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi- 
cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication 
of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses 
sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they 
sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio- 
logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a 
restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. 

Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external 
causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal 
diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the 
swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other 
part of the body. For example, there is the well-known " stocking,'' 
or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is 
the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses 
when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym- 
phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the 
skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi- 
ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen 
(hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor- 
rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but 
usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. 

Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a 
local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation 
beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the 
skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating 
some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de- 
scribed is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac- 
ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to 
penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat- 
ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is 
more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog- 
nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi- 
tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is 
stroked or pressed upon. 

Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of 
internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point 
of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of 
the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, 
through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation 
to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the 
greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, 
round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be 
scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK EOBSE. 15 

afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed L< 
erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of 
dourine, or colt distemper. Hard Lumps, from which radiate welt- 
like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike 
eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. 

THE I 'i:<. \ \s OF < n;< i LATION. 

The l i i—t item in t h i> portion of the examination consists in taking 
the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de- 
termined at any point where a Large artery occupies a situation 

close to t-he -kin and above a hard ti>sue. such as a lioiie. cartilage, or 

tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse 
i» at the jaw. The external maxillary arterj run- from between the. 
jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside 
of the jawbone to the face. It i- located immediately* in front of the 
heavy muscles of the cheek. It- throb can he felt most distinctly 
just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The 
hall- of the iir-t and second or of the second and third fingers should 
he pressed lightly on the -kin over this artery when it.- pulsations are 
to he studied. 

The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as 
follow- : 

Stallion 28 t<> :'.•_' beats per minute. 

Gelding ."..". to 38 beats per minute. 

Mar.- ::» to m beats per minute. 

Foal - to ■"• years old W to 50 beats per minute. 

Foal ''> tu L2 liiniitii- n|il 15 in 00 beats per minute. 

Foal •_' in i weeks old 7<> in '.»• beats per minute. 

The pulse i- accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot 
weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid 
in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a 
slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The 
pulse should he regular; that i-. the separate beats should follow each 
other after intervals of equal Length, and the heat- should be of equal 
fullness, hi' volume. 

In disease, the pulse may become -lower or more rapid than in 
health. Slowing of the pulse may he caused by old age, great exhaus- 
tion, or excessive cold. It may he due to depression of the central 
oervous system, a- in dumminess, <>r be the result of the administra- 
tion of drugs, such a- digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse i- 
almo-t always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and 
the weaker the heart the more rapid i- the pulse. Under these con 
ditions, the hem- may rise to BO, 90, or even 120 per minute. When 
the pulse is above LOO per minute the outlook for recovery is not 
promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera- 



16 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ture or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis- 
eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. 

The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where 
the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter- 
vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- 
lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in 
chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, 
when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through 
the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs 
when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and 
it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication 
of heart weakness. 

In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in 
the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line 
and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It exends almost 
to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between 
the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly 
on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed 
against the left chest Avail at a place immediately above the point of 
the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers — two in the left and 
two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- 
cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the 
lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle) , and from here it is sent 
with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) 
through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the 
body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of 
the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the 
right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the 
lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each 
side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. 

If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of 
the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by 
placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the 
point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the 
more distinctly this impact is felt. IMhe animal is excited, or if he 
has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is 
at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. 

The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in 
this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of 
the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to 
call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard 
during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some 
alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making 
this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles 
of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 17 

the elbow, or, if the sounds arc not heard distinctly, the loft fore leg 
may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right car placed 
against tho lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this 
manner. 

The first sound of the heart occur- while the heart muscle is con- 
tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the 
valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the 
lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after 
the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus- 
ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open- 
ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is 
longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of 
disease these sound- may be altered in various way-. It i- not profit- 
able, in a work such as this, to describe the detail- of these alteration-. 
Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the 
veterinary text -books. 

TEMPERATURE. 

The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the 
fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse 
to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina- 
tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied 
upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther- 
mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-register- 
ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but 
larger, being from .~> to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal 
i- measured in the rectum. 

The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ- 
ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old. and 
i> higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de- 
cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem- 
perature varies from '.»'.». .">° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to 
102.5° the horse Is -aid to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 
104 the fever is moderate: if it reaches 106 c it is high, and above this 
point it i> regarded a- very high. In some diseases, such a- tetanus 
or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high a- 108 or 110°. In the 
ordinary infection- diseases it doe- not often exceed 106 . A tem- 
perature of 107.5 C and above is very dangerous and must lie reduced 
promptly if the horse i- to be saved. 

THE ORG \\- OF RESPIRATION. 

In examining this system of organs and their function? it is custom- 
ary to begin by ooting the frequency of the respiratory movements. 
This point can be determined by observing the motion- of the nostrils 
or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the 

moisture of the warm air a- it come- from the lungs. The normal 
H. Dor. 7'.'.-,. 5»-2 2 



18 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 1G per min- 
ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and is increased 
by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying 
upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no 
physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among 
these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por- 
tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia ; com- 
pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con- 
trolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the 
blood ; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. 

Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs 
when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the 
amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the 
lungs, as in pneumonia ; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu- 
matism or pleurisy ; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, 
swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory 
passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and 
chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty 
is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. 
In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his 
neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils 
are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs 
protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the 
amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the 
flanks heave. 

The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con- 
tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from 
each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream 
of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in- 
dication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a 
bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or 
secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found 
where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic 
catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the 
breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs 
where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. 

In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to 
determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined 
closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both 
nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. 
The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com- 
posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal 
catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of 
mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge 
is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 19 

is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or 
less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates 
within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The 
discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres 
tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia 
is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account. 
has been described as a prune-juice discharge. The discharge may 
contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis- 
charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the 
respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a tine froth, it comes 
from the lungs. 

In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem- 
ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and 
that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors 
are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of 
glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that 
disease. 

Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic 
glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to 
find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis- 
ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands 
become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break- 
down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. 
On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the 
proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw- 
bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders. 
If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the 
disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen- 
sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. 

The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno- 
sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a 
forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is 
to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and 
it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, 
or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if 
the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, 
bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs 
merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon 
the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter- 
mine the character of the cough, it can easily l.e excited by pressing 
upon the larynx with the thumb and linger. The larynx should he 
pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the 
horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also 
in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown 
by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is 
not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract. 



20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain- 
ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs 
are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air, 
and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated 
animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom- 
panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist ; it is dry when 
these characteristics are not present — that is, when the air in passing 
out passes over surface not loaded with secretion. 

In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus- 
cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped 
upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con- 
tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. 
Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated 
by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is 
practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion 
hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the 
fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed 
firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the 
ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to 
form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers 
is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, 
which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be 
accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami- 
nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy 
whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in 
pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy- 
ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, 
the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu- 
mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion 
sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. 

Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear 
a}> plied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the 
lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly, 
especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything 
that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, 
rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is 
heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. 
The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory 
infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by 
fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air 
is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu- 
monia, and when the lungs are compressed by flirid in the chest 
cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early 
stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of 
the beginning of pneumonia. 



EXAMINATION OF A SICE HORSE. 21 

By applying the ear over the lower pari of the windpipe in front of 
the breastbone a somewhal harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This 
is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions 
near the lower part of the trachea and to a Limited extent in the ante- 
rior portions of the Lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial 
murmur is heard over other portions of the Lungs, it may signify thai 
the Lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing l)ron- 
chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a 
distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal 
place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the Lungs are com- 
pressed by fluid in the chest cavity. 

Additional sounds are heard in the Lungs in some diseased condi- 
tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the 
air is forced through it or i- caused <<» puss through tithe- containing 
secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature 
and are known a- mucous rales. Mucous rale- are spoken of a- heme 
Large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the 
quantity of fluid that i- present and the size of the tube in which this 

sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid- 
ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. Thej occur 
in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there i- an excess of secretion. 

Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or 
flute. This i> due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it 
i- heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. 

A friction sound i- heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing 
together of roughened surface-, and the sound produced i- similar 
to a dry rubbing sound that i- caused by rubbing the hand- together 

or by rubbing upon each other two dry. rough piece- of leather. 
THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. 

The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of 
digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A 

healthy animal ha- a g I appetite. LOSS of appetite does not point 

i,, ;, special diseased condition, hut comes from a variety of causes. 
Some of these causes, indeed, may he looked upon a- being physio- 
Logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather 
may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, 
fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical 
difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite i- diminished or 
destroyed. Sometimes there i- an appetite or desire to eat abnormal 
things, such a- dirty bedding, root- of grass, -oil. etc. This de-ire 
usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition. 

Thirst is diminished in a i_ r o<.d many mild diseases unaccompanied 
l>v distinct fever. It is seen where there i- greal exhaustion or depres- 
sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst i- increased after pro- 



22 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 

fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec- 
tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. 

Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse 
to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe- 
rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and 
carefully looked for : Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac- 
ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflammatory conditions, or 
wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips ; paralysis of the mus- 
cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the 
mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty 
in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as " quid- 
ding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed 
and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example, 
after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the 
mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or 
from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the 
bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is 
similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding 
is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth 
when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid- 
ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of 
boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall. 
In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of 
fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. 

In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro- 
cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of 
taking food. A similar condition is seen in hyperemia of the brain. 
In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed 
box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are 
made while the food is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat 
very rapidly for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be 
brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay 
the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and 
stand stupidly, as though he has forgotten what he was about. 

In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for 
evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior; that is, the front 
and sides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means 
wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by 
eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the 
mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers 
through the interdental space in such a way as to cause the mouth to 
open. The mucous membrane should be clean and of a light-pink 
color, excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yel- 
lowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse 
inflammation, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge; local 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 23 

inflammation, as from eruptions, ulcers, <>r wounds; necrosis <>i' the 
lower jawbone in front of the firsl back tooth; and swellings. For- 
eign bodies an- sometimes found embedded in the mucous membrane 
lining of the month or lodged between the teeth. 

The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made 
chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region 
of the throat and along the Left side of the neck in the jugular gutter. 
Sometimes, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esoph- 
ageal tube or probang is passed through the nos ■ mouth down the 

esophagus to the stomach. 

Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the 
contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more 
difficult for the horse than for most of the other dome-tic animals, 
because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor 
of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal wall- in contracting do 

not bring pressure to hear upon it SO directly and forcibly, a- i- tin- 
ea-"' ill many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of 
mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stom- 
ach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the 
passage of food into the stomach, hut does interfere with the exit of 
food through the esophageal opening. Still, vomiting is a symptom 
that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is 
very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the 
mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to. and 
also makes it possible for more pressure to he exerted upon the -tom- 
ach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the 
distention to permit vomiting must he extreme, it not infrequently 
happens that it leads to rupture of the stomach wall-. This has 
caused the impression in the minds of some that vomiting can not 
occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, hut this i- incor- 
rect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound. 

A.fler rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting i- impossible. 

In examination of the abdomen one should remember that it- size 
depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal, 
and also upon the manner in which the animal ha- been fed and the 
use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen may he the result 
of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdom- 
inal cavity; or. on the other hand, it may merely he an indication 
Of pregnancy, or of the fact that the horse ha- been fed for ;i long 

time on bulky and innutrition- f I. Pendulous abdomen occurring 

in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet ig an abnormal condi 
tion. The abdomen may increase suddenly in volume from accu 

mulation of gas in tympanic colic. The abd en becomes -mall and 

the horse is -aid to he •• tucked up " from long-continued poor appe 
tite. a- in diseases of the digestive tract ami in fever. This condi 



24 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tion also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal 
walls and in diarrhea from emptiness. 

In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side, 
certain bubbling sounds may be heard that are known as peristaltic 
sounds, because they are produced by peristalsis, or wormlike con- 
traction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the 
right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intes- 
tines lie in the right flank. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an 
indication of disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of. the 
intestines. This may occur in certain kinds of colic and is an un- 
favorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intes- 
tines are contracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic 
colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal 
canal. 

The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion. 
They should show that the food has been well ground, and should, in 
the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coat- 
ing of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates 
severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from 
inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung. 

Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the 
pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity by the 
hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted 
by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good 
knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned. 

THE EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The great brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it con- 
tains the centers that control motion in many parts of the body. 
The front portion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most 
important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior 
portions of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions 
of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or 
an inflammatory change in the region of a center governing the 
motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing 
motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps, 
or inability of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition 
known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence 
from these centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pass 
beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla 
oblongata to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the 
effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of 
the paths on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one 
side of the body. 

The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordi- 



EXAMINATION OF A BICE BOBSE. 25 

nation, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a totter- 
ing, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the 
spinal cord and the cerebellum, arc the centers governing the circula- 
tion and breathing. 

The spinal cord carries sensory messages to the brain and motor 
impressions from the brain. The anterior portions <>f the cord con- 
tain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain 
the sensory path-. 

Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known 
as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a 
nerve trunk leading to the part thai is involved. Paralysis <d' one- 
halt' of the body is known as hemiplegia and results from destruction 
or severe disturbances of the cerebral hemisphere of the opposite side 
of thf body or from interference with nerve paths between the cere- 
bellum, or small brain, and the spinal cord. Paralysis of the poste- 
rior half of the body is known as paraplegia and results from de- 
rangement of the spinal cord. If the cord is pressed upon, cut, or 
injured, messages ran not I"' transmitted beyond that point, and so the 
posterior part becomes paralyzed. This is seen when the hack is 
fracl ured. 

A.bnormaJ mental excitement may lie due to congestion of the brain 
or to inflammation. The animal so afflicted becomes vicious, pay- no 
attention to commands, erics, runs about in a circle, -tamp- with the 
feci, strikes, kick-, etc. This condition i- usually followed by a dull, 
stupid state, in which the animal stands with hi- head down, dull and 
irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in 
the severe febrile infection- diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in 
chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a«narcotic substance, 
and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines. 

Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. When it 
occiii- it i- shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and. finally, in 
ability to -land. The cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain, 
or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood 
supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass 
away and may never return, or i( may be due to some permanent 

cause, as a tumor or an abscess, or it max result from a hemorrhage, 
from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning. 

Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused l>v hemor- 
rhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a 
sat 1 1 rat ion of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may 
follow upon cerebral depression, which occur- as a secondary state 
of inllammat ion of the bra in. 

Where the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is known 
as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost that is, where there is no feel 
ingor knowledge of pain the condition is known as anesthesia. The 



26 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

former usually accompanies some chronic diseases of the spinal cord 
or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is 
difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even 
in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot 
may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. 
This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the 
brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal 
paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental 
depression, and in narcotic poisoning. 

URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS. 

In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs 
we may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that prevails to 
an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing 
upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the 
fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the 
horse depresses his back it is at once said u his kidneys are weak." 
Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any 
healthy horse — any horse with normal sensation and with a normally 
flexible back — will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If 
the kidneys are inflammed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly 
and is not depressed under this pressure. 

To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought 
to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the 
transverse processes of the vertebras of the loins and beneath the hind- 
most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensi- 
tive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to 
shrink. 

The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is 
made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami- 
nation should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means 
it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary 
calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and 
acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital 
organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of 
local disease or from disease higher in the tract. 

The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic 
importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, dur- 
ing which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by 
constrained attitude, etc. This condition conies from inflammation 
of the bladder or met lira, urinary calculi (stones of the bladder or 
urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained 
from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, 
inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. 

The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder 
is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is 



EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 27 

weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial 
paralysis of the hind quarters. 

Horses usually void urine five to seven times a day, and pass from 4 
to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of 
voidings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irri- 
table or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quan- 
tity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys 
(interstitial nephritis) and in polyuria the quantity may be increased 
to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity of urine comes 
from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and 
nonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. 

The urine of the healthy horse is a pale or at times a slightly red- 
dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and 
is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Dark-brown urine 
is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A 
brownish-green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix- 
ture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, 
usually in the kidneys. 

The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It 
contains mucus, which causes it to be slightly thick and stringy, and 
a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy. 
A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of 
the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in sus- 
pension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine may be 
unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to 
determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is 
necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always 
abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary 
tract. 

The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040. 
It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the 
quantity is excessive. 

Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in 
high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests 
and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but 
require special apparatus and skill. 

Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus- 
sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train- 
ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be men- 
tioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination 
of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excre- 
tions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and 
tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation. 



METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 

. By Ch. B. Micheneb, V. S. 
I Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] 

Medicine may enter the body through any of the following desig- 
nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages; 
third, by the skin ; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic 
methods) ; fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the genito-urinary passages; 
and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). 

(1) By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the 
form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. 

Solids administered as powders should be as finely pulverized as 
possible, in order to secure rapid solution and absorption. Their 
action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be 
free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that 
are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the 
feed or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they 
should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on 
the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in 
the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in 
capsules, as balls are given. 

Pills, or "balls" when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 
inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. 
They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they 
should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent 
their becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls are sometimes passed 
whole witli the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is 
sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as 
to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this pur- 
pose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls are 
preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or 
nauseating; when the dose is not too large; when the horse is difficult 
to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain 
medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines 
requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in 
small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deli- 
quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be 
made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc.. when required 
28 



METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 29 

for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain- 
able and are a convenient means of giving medicines in ball form. 

Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they 
may, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the 
mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from 
a small phial. 

Pastes, or electuaries, are medicines mixed with licorice-root pow- 
der, ground flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or 
a " soft solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the 
mouth and throat. They are given by being spread upon the tongue, 
gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. 

When balls are to be given Ave should observe the following direc- 
tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above men- 
tioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If 
made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to 
become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given 
with the "balling gun" (obtainable at any veterinary instrument 
maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or 
gag may be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crush- 
ing the ball. Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a 
ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one 
giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball 
without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against 
having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped 
with the left hand and gently pulled forward ; the ball, slightly moist- 
ened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand 
as far back into the mouth as possible ; as the tongue is loosened it is 
drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. 
The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should 
always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling. 
This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or 
its becoming lodged in the gullet. 

It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce 
owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons 
medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids. 
When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use 
enough water or oil to dissolve or dilute it thoroughly ; more than this 
makes the drench bulky and is unnecesary. Insoluble medicines, if 
not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water, 
the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. 
The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and 
smooth about its neck; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and 
of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be 
better, because they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose 
is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while 



30 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb 
is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread 
out in such a manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose 
be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head 
as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines 
of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or 
the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown 
over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. 
Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a 
rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper 
front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through 
a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to 
be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury. 
The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from 
throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be 
horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high 
the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is 
doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far 
as possible, and then try to swallow.) The person giving the drench 
should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth — on 
a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be intro- 
duced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an 
upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when 
the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the 
liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care 
being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. 
The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not 
swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the 
bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally removing them. 
As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken 
all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle 
should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. 

Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue 
when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to 
swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing 
may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head 
is high^ a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but drenches must never be 
given through the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour- 
ing into the nose arc liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine 
is irritating, it set- up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, 
and sometimes the lungs. 

Cattle are easily drenched by holding them by the nose with the 
left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right. 
Balls are not to be given to cattle, for they are likely to become 



METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 31 

embedded in the great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily if 
at all. 

(2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages 
by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. 

Insufflation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into 
the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. 

Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation, as is also 
medicated steam, or vapor. Of the gases used there may be men- 
tioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlo- 
rine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where 
these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impreg- 
nated with them. Volatile medicines — as the anesthetics (ether, chlo- 
roform, etc.) — are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medi- 
cated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot 
water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, 
iodine, creolin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines 
have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose 
is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the 
" medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough 
to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often 
thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper." 

Infections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic 
syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat- 
ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has 
also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu- 
tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. 

The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some 
local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- 
sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this 
method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, 
since, as a rule, the horse objects very strongly to this mode of medi- 
cation. 

(3) By the skin. — Medicines are often administered to our hair- 
covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some 
medicines — as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin 
solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. — over the entire body, as poison- 
ing and death follow in some instances from absorption through the 
skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous 
medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With 
domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay 
local pain or cure local disease. 

(4) By the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermatic method). — 
Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the 
skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners 



32 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are pow- 
erful poisons. There are many precautious to be observed, and a 
knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions 
has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an 
abscess may be produced. 

(5) By the rectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when 
they can not be given by the mouth, or when they are not retained in 
the stomach: when we want a local action on the last gut; when it is 
desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to 
stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation. 
Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories or as 
liquid injections (enemas). Foods may also he given in this way. 

Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobro am 
opium (()]• whatever medicine is indicated in special cases). ;. 
introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and \ 
these parts. They are nor much used in treating horses. 

Enemas, when given for absorption, should he small in qus 
neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 
to 100° F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should he h 
duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand ( 
copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid 
action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend th 
bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt 
water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, m; 
given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for 
little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a 
-age. Stimulating enemas, as glycerin, should be administered afte* 
those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the 
pose of still further increasing the natural motion of the inte 
and aiding the purging medicine. 

Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a 
syringe or a pump. A very good "irrigator" can be bought 
tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on 
stock farm. It consists of a runnel about 6 inches deep and 7 inches 
in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation v ' •' 
piece of rubber host', such as small garden hose. 4 feet lo 
attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently im 
turn about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be p« 
the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will foi v il 
bowels. This appliance is better than the more com) ' 
expensive ones. 

Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly 
by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by ti 
heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. 



METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 33 

(G) By the genito-urinar- 3SAGES. — This method of medication 
is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary 
organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing 
of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the 
irrigator described above may be used. 

(7) By the blood. — Injections directly into veins are to be prac- 
ticed by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably 
some other means of giving medicines — intratracheal injections, etc. 

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 -3 



•• 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

By Ch. B. Michkneb, V. s. 

[Revised in 19<»:> by Leonard l'earson, B. S., V. M. D. ] 

It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the 
common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic 
care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment." of the digestive 
organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of 
the food and drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyse-, 
etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to 
space, the endeavor must be made to give simply an outline — to state 
the most important facts — leaving many gaps, and continually check- 
ing the disposition to write anything like a full description as to 
cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of disease. 

These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock owners, 
and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind when 
they are disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of 
the subject-. 

WATER. 

It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock 
can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac- 
tice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. 
Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- 
ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure 
heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, 
and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated 
with different poisons and contaminated with specific media of con- 
tagion produces death in very many instance.-. 

Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it 
may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually 
they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages 
or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant 
for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse 
requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary 
somewhat upon the character of his food; if upon green food, less 
water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. 

The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the 
horse should receive water at least three times a day: when at work, 
more frequently. The rule should be to give in small quantities and 
often. There is a popular fallacy thai it' a horse is warm he should 
not be allowed to drink, many claiming that the first swallow of water 
34 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35 

" founders " the animal or produces colic. This is erroneous. No 
matter how warm a horse may be. it is always entirely safe to allow 
him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into 
the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and 
allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered 
him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but 
sparingly. The clanger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water, 
but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when 
warm if he is not restrained. 

"Water should never be given to horses when it is ice cold. It may 
not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing 
water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the 
sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, 
even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the 
horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. 

In reference to the purity of water, Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- 
giene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface 
water as wholesome; stored rain water and surface water from culti- 
vated land, as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access 
and shallow-well water, as dangerous. The water that is used for 
drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can 
not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an imper- 
vious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out. a large 
basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with 
water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug. and 
there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water 
is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent 
rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried 
into it by surface drainage during each succeeding storm. This or- 
ganic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and, as the result, we 
find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water 
is drunk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must 
not be lost sight of that stagnant surface water is much more certainly 
contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the 
herd, thus endangering the remainder. 

The chief impurities of water may be classified as organic and 
inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable 
substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. 
Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of 
this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and 
copper are also frequently found in water, and will be referred to 
hereafter. 

About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver- 
age stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. 
Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. 



36 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 

Chemical and microscopic examination Avill frequently be neces- 
sary in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., 
and can, of course, be conducted by experts only. 

FOODS AND FEEDING. 

In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive 
discussion of the subject of foods and feeding, and I must content my- 
self with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, 
preparation, digestibilit} 7 , proper time of feeding, quality, and quan- 
tity. Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over 
one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence 
the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some 
proper ideas concerning these subjects. 

KINDS OF FOOD. 

In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder, 
roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed 
on nothing else. Stewart, in " The Stable Book," gives the following 
extract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of 
interest at this point : 

In some sterile couutries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and 
even on vegetable mold : in Arabia, on milk, flesh balls, eggs, broth. In India 
horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few, 
perhaps no, oats are grown; barley ij rare, and not commonly given to horses. 
Tn Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of 
India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram {Cicer arietinum), forms the ordinary 
food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or 
rice is seldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops, 
and sometimes molasses are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and 
other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed 
to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is 
sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves 
of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to 
horses. 

For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- 
tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader to Jordan's 
or Armsby's book on feeding animals, or to " Smith's Veterinary 
Hygiene." 

We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of 
the digestibility of foods; and by this we mean the readiness with 
which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit 
them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal 
economy. 

The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the diges- 
tibility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, pre- 
serving, and preparing the foods. 

In the horse digestion lakes place principally in the intestines, and 
here, as in all oilier animal- and with all foods, it is found that a 



FOODS AND FEEDING. 37 

certain part only of the provender is digested ; another portion is 
undigested. This proportion of digested and undigested food must 
claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food, 
or bulky food containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of 
food must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused 
food, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force 
on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in 
fact, too much food may make an animal poor. 

In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical 
arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological 
functions performed by each one of them. Foods must be whole- 
some, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of 
preparation found by practical experience to be the best must be 
adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must 
be observed. 

The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse 
varies with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stom- 
ach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats 
should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the 
oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted 
upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experi- 
ence confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be 
given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted 
from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insur- 
ing proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the 
grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feed- 
ing, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is fitted 
for intestinal digestion. 

The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence- 
ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards 
the passage is sloAver, and several hours are required before the stom- 
ach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse 
must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can 
not be performed on a full stomach. For such labor food must be 
given in small quantity and about two hours before they go to work. 
Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with 
bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The 
small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion 
that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in 
reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the 
stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the 
horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common 
errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders 
than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day's work. This 
must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded, it will be found 



38 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. 
A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be 
withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with 
equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a 
long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat; for if 
allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, 
and " colic " is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed 
three or four times a day. It will not answer to feed him entirely 
upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the 
grains in their passage through the intestinal tract ; bulk also favors 
distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that 
do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay 
fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feed- 
ing, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of 
feeding. 

Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. When desirous of 
changing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to 
oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken 
him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, 
this also must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must 
always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If 
a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from work 
for a few days, see that he receives a proportionate amount of feed. 
If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunday, there 
would be fewer cases of " Monday morning sickness," such as colics 
and lymphangitis. 

Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is 10 
stand for some days. 

Musty or moldy foods. — Above all things, avoid feeding musty or 
moldy foods. These are very frequent causes of disease of different 
kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and " heaves," often follows 
the use of such food. The digestive organs always suffer from moldy 
or musty foods. Musty hay is generally considered to produce dis- 
order of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant ani- 
mals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often 
been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cere- 
brospinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. 

Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly 
to the different kinds of foods: 

Hay. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one 
year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a 
sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a 
length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not 
be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is 
difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occa- 



FOODS AND FEEDING. 39 

sional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all, it should be 
mixed with old hay. 

Second crop, or aftermath. — This is not considered good hay for 
horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch 
cows, the claim being made that it increases the flow of milk. The 
value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the 
curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds 
fall ; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. 
An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it 
should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too 
long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith 
asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss 
of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to 
state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of 
course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other cir- 
cumstances; but it is well known that, in order to preserve the color 
and aroma of hay, it should be turned or tedded frequently and 
cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the 
mow if harvested too green, or when not sufficiently dried. Mow- 
burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the 
horse to fall off in condition. 

The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds 
of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at 
light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become 
pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of 
colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be 
long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those 
accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay. 

Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and 
when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground 
or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most 
used, and of these oat straw is most easily digested and contains the 
most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to 
horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers. 

Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for 
horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat 
and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach 
and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the " soft concre- 
tions, 7 '' which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the 
digestive tract. 

Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or 
corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in 
large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and 
sometimes fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses 
or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff. 



40 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, 
as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body 
exist in them in the host proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily 
digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the 
various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. 
A. cording to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short, 
hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln- 
dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, for even though originally good 
tli is drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fer- 
mented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given 
either whole or crushed — whole in the majority of instances; crushed 
to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their 
feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large 
enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. 

The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay 
above mentioned, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats 
are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the 
grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less 
waste from " scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy 
oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, 
but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease 
in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or 
drink, sudden paralysis, and death. 

Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for 
horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed 
with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quanti- 
ties, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis 
(founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more 
than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground 
or crushed. 

Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a 
feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if 
given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the 
bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach 
and intestines and may even produce serious results. 

Maize (corn). — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for 
young horses, us it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. 
Coin on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with 
" lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should 
be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is bet- 
ter given ground, and i'v<] in quantities of from 1 to '2 quarts at a, 
meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran, He very particular in 
giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be 
commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I 



PREPARATION OF FOODS. 41 

know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- 
tion than corn if these directions are not observed. 

Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to 
keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is 
of particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug- 
gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or 
inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. 

Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in 
many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce 
indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. 
They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. 

Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses. 

Carrots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during 
sickness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action 
of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative prop- 
erties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. 
Some veterinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving 
carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an 
adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fed in small quantities are 
highly beneficial. 

Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of 
a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nour- 
ishment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods 
and only eaten when there' is nothing else obtainable, while others are 
positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are suf- 
ficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed 
are " soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at 
hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensable, and there is 
little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to 
horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses 
in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest, 
and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. 
It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a 
medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery. Wounds heal 
more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic dis- 
orders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. 
In my experience, grass does more good when the horse crops it him- 
self. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, 
to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons. 
When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. 

preparation of foods. 

Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons : 
To render the food more easily eaten ; to make it more digestible ; to 
economize in amount ; to give it some new property ; and to pre- 



42 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

serve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and 
need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different 
foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, 
i. c. removes the laxative tendency of most of them. 

The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or 
even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of 
corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common 
with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. 

Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not 
only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it 
will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains 
(whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. 

Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their 
food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such 
ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, 
straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though 
a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. 

One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed 
grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. 
Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it 
is mixed; and the mixing trough even, unless frequently scalded and 
cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the 
food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt 
should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be 
cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it ; bad foods 
are dear at any price and should never be fed. 

I have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Xot only 
does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it 
also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- 
mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are 
weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am 
inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect 
manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would 
be more frequent were it extensively fed. 

DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 

Dentition.- — This covers the period during which the young horse is 
cutting his teeth — from birth to the age of five years. With the 
horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second, or per- 
manent, teeth than with the first, or milk, teeth. There is a tendency 
among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to 
the teeth of young horses. IVreivall relates an instance illustrative 
of this that i- best told in his own words: 

I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, 
who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, anil so rapidly declined in con- 



DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 43 

dition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light 
apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without 
having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon 
was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and 
the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of 
the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed, but without beneficial result. 
It was after this that I saw the horse, and I confess I was, at my first examina- 
tion, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretation as others 
had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently 
extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I 
went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the 
situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insuffer- 
able pain. I instantly took out my pocketknife and made crucial incisions 
through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse 
recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition. 

The mouths of young horses should be examined from time to time 
to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, 
causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first 
teeth should be removed with the forceps. 

Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- 
cially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly " floated,' 1 or 
" rasped," by " veterinary dentists.''' In some instances this is very 
beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the 
character of the food, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's 
teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw 
is somewhat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the 
teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the 
inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may 
excoriate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condi- 
tion can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when 
found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances 
the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact 
that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close per- 
fectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated, 
it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the neces- 
sary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped 
down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite 
common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the 
opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that 
the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be 
shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all 
instances where horses " quid " their food, where they are slobbering, 
or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their 
head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully exam- 
ined. Horses whose teetli have unduly sharp edges are likely to drive 
badly; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too 
hard and " big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot 
is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable 



44 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by 
the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious difficulty 
detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered, 
an expert should be called. 

Toothache. — This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where 
there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache 
is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed by him while 
feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with 
toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one 
side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some 
sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is 
no foreign body found, we must then carefully examine each tooth. 
If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth, we can, in most 
instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from 
without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such 
as a small hammer, the one that is tender may be located. The horse 
will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most 
cases there is nothing to be done but extract the decayed tooth, and 
this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. 

There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with 
prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper 
incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of 
both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by fric- 
tion. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can 
be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the 
lower jaw become so long that they bruise the "bars" of the upper 
jaw. they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this 
deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. 

DISKASES Or THE MOUTH. 

Lampas. — Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous 
membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less 
prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. The hard 
palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the 
horse is feeding, and this causes the ridges to become prominent, and 
they then help to keep food from dropping from the mouth. This 
swelling is entirely natural and occurs in every healthy horse. "Where 
there is some irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teeth- 
ing, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, due to the in- 
creased blood supply. In such cases the cause of the irritation should 
be sought for and removed. By way of direct treatment, slight scari- 
fication is the most that will be required. Burning the lampas is bar- 
barous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated. 

It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stable- 
men that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact 
whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked 



DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 45 

symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." 
It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary," yet it is 
not the case. It may be put clown, then, as an affliction of the stable- 
man's imagination rather than of the horse's mouth. 

Stomatitis. — This in an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or 
other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which 
is also hot and painful to the touch ; there is a copious discharge of 
saliva ; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there 
are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, 
soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh 
cold water should be kept constantly in the manger so that the horse 
may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances it may be 
advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about 
one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be 
fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis some- 
times occurs that is characterized by the formation within the mouth 
of small vesicles, or blisters. In this disease the horse should be 
isolated from other horses, and his stall, especially the feed box, and 
his bit should be disinfected. 

Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the 
above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. In- 
juries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its 
covering membrane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more 
extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would re- 
quire surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation 
of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be 
followed. 

Plyalism, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive se- 
cretion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth ; 
inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines 
as lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some foods produce this, such 
as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, such as nails, 
wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the 
cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astrin- 
gent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or b}^ means of 
a sponge. 

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining 
of the pharynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied by 
stomatitis or laryngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances 
in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are 
noticed febrile symptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or 
solids ; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow ; there 
is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). In- 
creased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular, 



46 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

and cough only when attempting to swallow are the symptoms best 
marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous 
and the disease ends in death. For treatment wrap a wet sheet 
around the throat and cover this with rubber sheeting and a warm 
blanket. This should be changed three times daily: or the region of 
the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until 
the skin becomes irritated, but no longer; chlorate of potash may be 
given in quantities of 2 drams four times daily, mixed with flaxseed 
meal or liquorice-root powder and honey, as an electuary. Soft foods 
should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the 
horse. 

Paralysis of the piiaryxx, or, as it is commonly called. " paralysis 
of the throat." is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are 
as follows: The horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but will be 
unable to do so; if water be offered him from a pail he will appar- 
ently drink with avidity, but the quantity of water in the pail will 
remain about the same; he will continue trying to drink by the hour: 
if he can succeed in getting any fluid into the back part of the mouth 
it will come out at once through the nose. Foods also return through 
the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination 
of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or 
any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the 
horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much 
emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from 
inanition. 

I 'reatmt nt is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be ap- 
plied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently 
swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of 
water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strych- 
nia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a day. 

This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the 
mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be dis- 
tinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the 
mouth, by the absence of any offending body and by the flabby feel 
of the mouth; and from the latter by the animal appearing in per- 
fect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink. 

Abscesses. — Abscesses sometimes form back of the pharynx and 
give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. 
Interference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression, 
without any observable -welling or soreness about the throat, will 
make one suspeel the formation of an abscess in this location. But 
little <an be done by the owner in the way of treatment, save to hurry 
the ripening of the abscess and its discharge by steaming with hops, 
hay. or similar substances and by poulticing the throat. The opera- 
ation for opening an abscess in this region necessitates an intimate 
knowledge of the complex anatomy of the throat region. 



DISEASES OF THE GULLET. 47 

DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS, OR GULLET. 

It is rare to find diseases of this organ, except as a result of the 
introduction of foreign bodies too large to pass or to the administering 
of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administra- 
tion of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. 
If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and 
this again is prone to be followed by constriction (narrowing) of 
the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It 
may occur when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples 
or roots, and we should be careful never to approach suddenly or 
put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. 
If left alone these animals very rarely attempt to swallow the object 
until it is sufficiently masticated. 

Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to 
such horses as eat very greedily or bolt their food. "Wheat chaff is 
also a frequent cause of choke. This accident may result from the 
attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls 
that are too large or not of the proper shape. 

Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper 
part of the esophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, 
giving rise to the designations of pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic 
choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find 
all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with food. 

The symptojns vary somewhat according to the position of the 
body causing choke. In pharyngeal choke the object is lodged in the 
upper portion of the esophagus. The horse will present symptoms 
of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow 
of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The 
abdomen rapidly distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by 
manipulating the upper part of the throat from without and by the 
introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the 
body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is 
situated at any point between the throatlatch and the shoulder) the 
protrusion caused by the object can be seen and the object can be felt. 
The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen occa- 
sionally to draw himself up, arch his neck, and make retching 
movements as though he wished to vomit. The abdomen may be 
tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a con- 
clusion may be reached by pouring water into the throat from a 
bottle. If the obstruction is complete you can see the gullet become 
distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the 
horse and watching the course of the esophagus, just above the wind- 
pipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an 
angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken 
would show in these cases: but solids should not. however, be given, 



48 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

as they serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the 
body more difficult. 

In thoracic choke the symptoms are less severe. Food or water 
may be ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken 
a fe\v swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness 
of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally retching movements. Some- 
times a horse that is choking is heard to emit groans. The facial 
expression always denotes great anxiety and the eyes are bloodshot. 
The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a flexible 
tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. 

Treatment. — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet (pharyn- 
geal) an effort must be made to remove the obstacle through the 
mouth. A mouth-gag, or speculum, is to be introduced into the 
mouth to protect the hand and arm of the operator. Then, while an 
assistant, with his hands grasped tightly behind the object, presses 
it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his 
hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it 
outward. This mode of procedure must not be abandoned with the 
first failure, as we may get the obstacle farther tow T ard the mouth by 
continued efforts. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be intro- 
duced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond 
the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail, Ave must 
then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the 
probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in remov- 
ing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse; 
and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who 
have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as 
whipstalks. shovel handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and 
more than one horse has been killed by such barbarous treatment. 

Cervical choke. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, Ave must 
first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring 
oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done 
endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. 
If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- 
quently produce choke in the horse), begin by gently squeezing the 
lower portion of the impacted mass and endeavor to work it loose a 
little at a lime. This is greatly favored at times if Ave apply hot 
fomentations immediately about the obstruction. Persist in these 
efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more 
dangerous mode-- of treatment. If unsuccessful, hoAvever. the pro- 
bang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, use a 
piece of inch hose »'» feet long, or a piece of new three-quarter-inch 
manila rope well wrapped at the end with cotton twine and thor- 
oughly greased with tallow. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag 
of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The pro- 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 49 

bang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of 
the gullet and gently forced downward until the obstruction is 
reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not at first 
attempt too much force, or the esophagus will be ruptured. Simply 
keep up this firm, gentle pressure until } 7 ou feel the object moving, 
after which you are to follow it rapidly to the stomach. If this mode 
of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or physician is to be called 
in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon it. This should 
scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of 
the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve 
that are closely related to the esophagus in its cervical portion. 

Thoracic choke. — Thoracic choke can be treated only by means of 
the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks, and the careful nso 
of the probang. 

Stricture or the esophagus. — This is due to corrosive medicines, 
previous choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, nar- 
row the passage), or pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the major- 
ity of cases of stricture, dilatation, of the gullet in front of the con- 
stricted portion soon occurs. This dilatation is due to the frequent 
accumulation of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done 
in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. 

Sacular dilatation of the esophagus. — This follows choking, and 
is due to stretching or rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, 
allowing the internal, or mucous, coat to protrude through the lacer- 
ated muscular walls. Such a dilatation, or pouch, may gradually 
enlarge from the frequent imprisonment of food. When liquids «are 
taken, the solid materials are partially washed out of the pouch. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are as follows: The horse is able to 
swallow a few mouthfuls of food without apparent difficulty; then 
he will stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject 
a portion of the food through his nose or mouth, or it will gradually 
work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the 
symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again 
taken solid food. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconven- 
ience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical in- 
terference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic por- 
tion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand 
to hand by " swapping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the 
sac become too firm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal 
succumbs. 

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 

As a rule it is most difficult to distinguish between diseases of the 
stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is 
that the stomach is relatively small. It lies away from the abdominal 

IT. Doc. 795, 59-2 4 



50 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

wall, and ^o pressure from without can not be brought to bear upon 
it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Nor does enlargement, or disten- 
tion, of the stomach produce visible alteration in the form of the 
abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there are lew 
exceptions that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts 
likewise upon the intestines, so that it is customary to find them 
similarly deranged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together 
the diseases of the stomach and intestines and to point out such 
localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recog- 
nizing and treating the diseases of the digestive organs of the horse. 

It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inflammation of 
the stomach and enteritis an inflammation of the intestines. The two 
terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stomach and 
intestines, as gastro-enteritis. 

Colic. — The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is 
what is termed " colic," and many are the remedies that are reputed to 
be " sure cures " for this disease. Let us discover, then, what the word 
" colic " means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of 
the organs of the abdomen that are accompanied by pain. If the 
horse evinces abdominal pain, he is likely to be put down as suffering 
with colic, no matter whether the difficulty be a cramp of the bowel, 
an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease 
of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions differ so much in their 
causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike 
and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve them all. 
Therefore it is important that the various diseased states that are so 
roughly classed together as colic shall, so far as possible, be separated 
and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be pre- 
scribed. With this object in view, colics will be considered under 
the following headings: (1) Engorgement colic, (2) obstruction colic, 
(3) tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic, (5) worm colic. 

The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of colic, 
are restlessness, cessation of whatever the horse is about, lying down, 
looking around toward the flank, kicking with the hind feet upward 
and forward toward the belly, jerky switching of the tail, stretching 
as though to urinate, frequent change of position, and groaning. In 
the more intense forms the horse plunges about, throws himself down, 
rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and 
grunts loudly. Usually the pain is not constant, and during the inter 
missions the horse may eat and appear normal. During the period 
of pain sweat is poured out freely. Sometimes the horse moves con- 
stantly in a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually 
there is no fever. 

(1) Engorgement colic. — This form of colic consists in an over- 
loading of the stomach with food. The horse may have been overfed 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 51 

or the food may have collected in the stomach through failure of this 
organ to digest it and pass it backward into the intestines. Even a 
normal amount of food that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause 
disease. Hence a sudden change of food may produce engorgement 
colic. Continued full rations while the horse is resting for a day or 
two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New 
oats, corn, or hay, damaged food, or food difficult of digestion, such 
as barley or beans, may incite engorgement colic. This disease may 
result from having fed the horse twice by error or from its having 
escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground 
feeds that pack together making a sort of dough may cause engorge- 
ment colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy eaters are 
predisposed to this disease. 

Symptoms. — The horse shows the general signs of abdominal pain, 
which may be long continued or of short duration. Retching or vom- 
iting movements are made; these are shown by labored breathing, 
upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the 
throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high 
arching of the neck. The horse may assume a sitting position on his 
haunches, like a dog. At times the pain is very great and the horse 
makes the most violent movements, as though mad. At other times 
there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy, 
or dazed, way, with the head down, the eyes closed, and leaning his 
head against the manger or wall. There is, during the struggles, pro- 
fuse perspiration. Following retching, gas may escape from the 
mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and some stomach 
contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is vio- 
lently stretched, and, if the accumulation of food or gas is great 
enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be 
great enough to rupture this organ. So it happens not infrequently 
that a horse will die from ruptured stomach after vomiting. But 
after the stomach ruptures vomiting is impossible. The death rate 
in this form of colic is high. 

Treatment. — The bowels should be stimulated to contraction by the 
use of clysters of large quantities of water and of glycerin. Veteri- 
narians use hypodermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intra- 
venous injections of barium chloride, but these have to be employed 
with great caution. It is not profitable to give remedies by the 
stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphine 
(5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian hemp (2 drams) may be 
placed in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without pass- 
ing to the stomach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to over- 
come the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be 
the means of causing rupture of the diaphragm or stomach. If 



52 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

facilities are available relief may be afforded by passing an esoph- 
ageal tube through which some of the gaseous and liquid contents of 
the stomach may escape. 

Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of en- 
gorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse 
violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from 
disease of the coats of the stomach, gastritis, stones, or calculi, tumors, 
or anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intes- 
tines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the 
animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. These or similar causes 
may lead to this accident. 

The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant or always 
reliable. Always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse 
has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this 
organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most likely to 
occur in heavy draft horses. A prominent symptom observed 
(though it may also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is where the horse, 
if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or 
-its on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some 
extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes; it is also quickly 
regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky 
symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much and pre- 
sent no diagnostic value. As the case progresses "the horse will 
often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backward and downward 
until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again 
with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in 
increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, 
body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse 
reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. 

In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom we must take into 
account the history of the case; the symptoms of colic that cease sud- 
denly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse quick 
and small and thready, growing weak and more frequent, and at 
length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible; looking 
back at the (lank and groaning: sometimes crouching with the hind 
quarters; with or without eructation and vomiting. 

There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we 
be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at 
once. Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistake in 
diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two 
or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quid as 
possible. 

(2) Obstruction colic. — The stomach or bowels may be obstructed 
by accumulations of partly digested food (fecal matter), by foreign 
bodies, by displacements, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths. 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 53 

Impaction of the large intestines. — This is a very common bowel 
trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly 
treated, results in death. It is caused by overfeeding, especially of 
bulky food containing an excess of indigestible residue; old, dry, hard 
hay, or stalks when largely fed ; deficiency of secretions of the intesti- 
nal tracts; lack of water; want of exercise, medicines, etc. 

Symptoms. — Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a 
slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reap- 
pear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more fre- 
quently, but in smaller quantities and more dry ; the abdomen is full, 
but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw and 
soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most char- 
acteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat 
on his side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to 
look toward his flank ; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen 
minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most 
freedom from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, 
looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his 
tail, and soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The 
intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the flank, are dimin- 
ished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels. 
The bowels may cease entirely to move. The pressure of the distended 
intestine upon the bladder may cause the horse to make frequent 
attempts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being 
full and sluggish; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes 
rapid and feeble. Horses ma} T suffer from impaction of the bowels 
for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or 
even three weeks have ended favorably. As a rule, however, they sel- 
dom last over four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this. 

The treatment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels 
and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large 
cathartic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the follow- 
ing are recommended : Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 
drams, and powdered mix vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint and 
croton oil 15 drops ; or from 1 pint to 1 quart of castor oil may be 
given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or Glauber's salts, 
1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this 
causes the horse to drink largely of water, and thus mechanically 
softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever 
physic is selected, it is essential that a full dose be given. This is 
much better than small and repeated doses. It must be borne in mind 
that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a 
physic, and under no circumstances are physics to be repeated sooner 
than this. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the 
proper time, oil or some different cathartic should then be adminis- 
tered. Allow the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be 



54 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

administered in half-dram doses, the powder being placed on the 
tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given. 

Enemas of glycerin, 2 to 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing 
or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulat- 
ing liniments or strong mustard water will also, at times, favor the 
expulsion of this mass. Walking exercise must occasionally be given. 
If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority 
of cases will terminate favorably. Where relief is not obtained in- 
flammation of the bowels may ensue, and death follow from this 
cause. 

Constipation , or costiveness. — This is often witnessed in the horse, 
and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure 
on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon 
after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in partic- 
ular if it presents any signs of colicky pains — straining, etc. — imme- 
diate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will only be necessary 
to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce 
the finger through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung 
found there. If this is not effective, a purgative must be given. Oils 
are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving 
from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the 
mother's milk, as this milk, for a few days, possesses decided laxative 
properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphine, 
atropia, or similar medicines, the foal should be fed during this time 
by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in 
adult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innutritions 
food, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack 
of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms, a 
change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea. with plenty of exer- 
cise, is all that is required. If colic exists, a cathartic is needed. In 
very many instances the constipated condition of the bowels is due 
to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so due, may be treated In- 
giving fluid extract of belladonna three times a day in 2-dram doses, 
and handful doses daily of Epsom salts in the feed. It is always 
best, when possible, to overcome this trouble by a change of diet 
rather than by the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation 
such succulent foods as roots, grass, or green forage are recommended. 
Silage, however, should be fed sparingly, and not at all unless it is 
in the very best condition. Moldy silage may cause fatal disease. 

Foreign bodies (ealcidi (stones) in the stomach). — There are prob- 
ably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead one to 
suspect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we 
can unmistakably assert their presence. Stones in the stomach have 
been most frequently found in millers' horses fed sweepings from 
the mill. A depraved and capricious appetite is common in horses 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 55 

that have a stone forming in their stomach. There is a disposition to 
eat the woodwork of the stable, earth, and, in fact, almost any sub- 
stance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be con- 
sidered as pathognomonic, since it is observed when calculi are not 
present. Occasional colics may result from these " stomach stones," 
and when these lodge at the outlet of the stomach they may give rise 
to symptoms of engorged stomach, already described. There is, of 
course, no treatment that will prove effective. Give remedies to move 
the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation. 

Intestinal concretions {calculi {stones) in the intestines). — These 
concretions are usually found in the large bowels, though they are 
occasionally met with in the small intestines. They are of various 
sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or 
multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft 
(composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others are 
porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), 
and others are entirely hard and stonelike. The hair balls, so 
common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in the 
horse. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body, as a rule — 
a nail or piece of wood — whose shape they may assume to a certain 
extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until 
the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often 
found in millers' horses, as well also as in horses in limestone districts, 
where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and 
become lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause 
obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death. 
There are no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recurring 
colics of the type of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to 
suspect the existence of this condition. Examination through the 
rectum may reveal the calculus. 

The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon 
post-mortem examinations these stones will be discovered mostly in 
the large bowels; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about 
the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the 
action of a physic, or they may be removed by the hand when found 
to occupy the rectum. 

As in concretions of the stomach, there can be but little done in the 
way of treatment more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and 
to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and 
carrying them on and outward. 

Intussusception, or invagination. — This is the slipping of a portion 
of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a 
partially turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the 
bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated por- 
tion may be slight — 2 or 3 inches only — or extensive, measuring as 



56 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

many feet. In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction 
of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, con- 
gestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most likely 
to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowel, or in 

those where a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural 
wormlike or ringlike contraction of the gut favors the passage of 
the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it. 
It may occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as 
diarrhea, inflammation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to 
cold, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldirection. Foals 
are most likely to be thus afflicted. 

Symptoms. — Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes 
strangulated, probably no symptoms will be appreciable, except con- 
stipation. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and 
the horse die within twenty-four hours, or it may occur after several 
days — a week even — and death follow at this time. There are no 
symptoms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe 
and continuous, are observed, and there may be at first diarrhea fol- 
lowed by constipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of 
intussusception, and this should be given due credit when it occurs. 
As death approaches the horse sAveats profusely, sighs, presents an 
anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often 
freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare in- 
stances the horse recovers, even though the invaginated portion of 
the gut has become strangulated. In this case the imprisoned portion 
sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the 
intestines at the point where one portion has slipped into that behind 
it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such 
cases are exceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor 
oil, sweet oil, or calomel in small doses should be given, and creolin 
in _'-dram doses in a pint of warm water. Soft feed and mucilag- 
inous and nourishing drinks should be given during these attacks. 
E. Mayhew Michener has operated successfully on a foal with intus- 
susception by opening the abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut. 

Vol ml us, gut-tie, or twisting of I he bowels. — These are the terms 
applied to the bowels when twisted or knotted. This accident is 
rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner 
in which a horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic 
colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and 
obstructions of the bowels: the same directions as to treatment are 
therefore to be observed. 

Paralysis of the intestine. — This occurs in old, debilitated animals 
that have been fed on coarse innutritions fodder. This produces 
a condition of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for 
the intestine to advance it > contents, and so obstruction results. The 
symptoms are as in other forms of obstruction colic. The history of 



DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 57 

the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouble. The treatment 
consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of 
raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's 
salts dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in 
doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of 
feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. 

Abnormal growths, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing 
contraction or stricture may be causes of obstruction. The colic 
caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually 
shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is 
anorded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin 
and thus enable them to pass the obstruction. But in time the con- 
tracted place is likely to close so far that passage is impossible and 
the horse will die. 

(3) Flatulent colic (tympanitic colic, wind colic, or bloat). — 
Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men- 
tioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting, food then given 
while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of 
green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become 
sour, indigestible food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and, in fact, any- 
thing that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. 

The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so 
severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, 
paws slightly, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the 
start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front 
of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the 
above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed 
difficult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud 
tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, 
sighing respiration, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plung- 
ing forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the 
distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance 
and resonance on percussion. 

The treatment for wind colic differs very materially from that of 
cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be 
given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also bene- 
ficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these 
qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is then 
particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should 
be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spas- 
modic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisky may be given, or aromatic 
spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals. 

A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- 
ble, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned. 
Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces, 
may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the 



58 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

bowels and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot 
water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every five 
or ten minutes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of 
colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and 
persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some 
apparently mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that 
appear at the onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. 
Do not cease your efforts until you are stire the animal is dead. In 
these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent 
(distended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a 
needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has 
often saved life, and such punctures, if made with a clean, sharp in- 
strument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are 
accompanied by little danger and do more to quickly relieve the 
patient than any other treatment. 

(4) Spasmodic, or cramp, colic. — This is the name given to that 
form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the 
small intestines. It is produced by indigestible food; large drinks of 
cold water when the animal is warm ; driving a heated horse through 
deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribu- 
tion of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp 
of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic 
colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous horses 
than in coarse, lymphatic ones. 

Symptoms. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose 
this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment. 
Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen 
to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look back. He 
soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly 
lying down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the 
intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are 
louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he will 
resume feeding and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, how- 
ever, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again pass 
off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become 
shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even now 
there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of 
colic evince the most intense pain; they throw themselves down, roll 
over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike 
rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent 
attempts to pass their urine. Only a small amount of water is passed 
at a time, and this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied. 
These attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as symp- 
toms of trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only 
one of the many ways in which the horse expresses the presence of 



SPASMODIC COLIC. 59 

pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the 
horse are exceedingly rare. 

To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic : Keep in mind the 
history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, 
the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of 
shorter duration as the case progresses), the violent pain, the normal 
temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent 
attempts to urinate, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding 
this with other forms of colic. 

Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm, or cramp, of the 
bowels, medicines that overcome spasms — antispasmodics — are the 
ones indicated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in 
a dose of 1 ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As this drug is 
irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well diluted. A com- 
mon and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laudanum; of each 2 
ounces in a half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be com- 
posed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of 
water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one-half pint in hot 
water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one 
hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The 
body should be warmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets 
dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has 
been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry 
blankets, or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments 
or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets 
and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with 
them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not 
complete until there is given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint 
of linseed oil. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy water or 
salt and water aid the cure. 

Rectal injections, clysters, or enemas as a rule should be lukewarm, 
and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. They may be 
repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not 
to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a 
piece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one 
end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the 
syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, 
and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed 
through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must 
be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications 
or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this 
and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be 
avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best, 
as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be ex- 
tremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a 



60 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels 
may result and complicate the trouble. 

(5) Worm colic. — Parasites of many kinds reside in the intestinal 
canal of horses. There are three kinds of tapeworms, one long round- 
worm, and several kinds of smaller roundworms. Besides these are 
the hot-fly grubs and larva?. The intestinal worm most commonly 
seen is the long roundworm, known as Ascaris equorum. They are 
white or reddish in color and measure from 4 to 12 inches in length. 
In thickness they vary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's 
little finger, being thickest at the middle and tapering at both ends. 
They are found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the 
small intestines. (Sec PI. III.) 

Of the smaller roundworms, there may be mentioned Spiroptera 
iiii.sc/-o.sto///i/, which causes ulcers in the stomach: Gylichnostomum 
tetracanthum, Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus vulgaris, which 
live in the large intestines. The larva 1 of the last named burrow in 
the walls of the great mesenteric artery, causing aneurisms. 

The tapeworms, once seen, are easily recognized. They are white, 
fiat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end 
of the worm. Tapeworms of the horse measure from a few inches to 
a foot in length. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms of intestinal worms are not always ob- 
served, even when many parasites are present. If the infestation is 
extreme, there may he slight colicky pains at times, or there may only 
he switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight 
straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against 
the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his 
coat; is hidebound and potbellied: the appetite is depraved, licking 
the walls, luting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his 
body, eating earth, and being particularly fond of salt; the bowels 
are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place 
much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the upper lip. as 
shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the 
Avail or stalls. Others again declare that whenever we see the adher- 
ence of a dried whitish substance about the anus, worms are present. 
The our symptom, however, that we should always look for, and cer- 
tainly the only one that may not deceive us. is seeing the worms or 
their eggs (by the use of a microscope) in the dung. 

Treatment. — Remedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more 
efficienl if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must 
be supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the 
hot worm medicines may be mentioned santonin, turpentine, tartar 
emetic, creolin. infusion of tobacco, and hitter tonics. To destroy 
tapeworms, areca nut. malefern. and pumpkin seeds are the best. If 
a horse i^ passing the long roundworms, the plan of treatment is to 



INDIGESTION. 61 

give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen- 
tine or creolin 1 ounce and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on 
the fourth day by a physic of Barbados aloes 1 ounce, or one may give 
santonine 2 to 4 drams, with calomel 1 to 2 drams. This dose should 
not be repeated, and should be followed in six hours by 1 quart of lin- 
seed oil. If worms infesting the large bowels are present, injections 
into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, 
one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few 
days, and follow by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne 
in mind that intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in 
poor condition, and an essential part of treatment then is to improve 
the appetite and powers of digestion. This is best done by giving 
the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, gin- 
ger, quassia, etc., is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. 

To improve the general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad 
salts, 1 tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 
3 to 5 grains of arsenious acid. 

Bot-fly larvae do not require special treatment unless they lodge in 
the rectum, in which case they may be dislodged by injecting tobacco 
water. If plenty of rock salt is allowed for horses to lick, they will 
thus be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight but useful 
degree. 

Indigestion or gastro-intestinal catarrh. — There is ample rea- 
son for considering these conditions together from the facts that they 
merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously. 
This condition may be acute — that is, of sudden onset — or it may be 
chronic. The changes of structure produced by this disease occur 
in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This 
membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemor- 
rhage into it, it is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy 
mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed 
in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. 

The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the 
result of errors in feeding. 

Some horses are naturally endowed with weak digestive organs, 
and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates 
the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Foods that the 
animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, 
unripe, or damaged foods are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. 
In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the 
dam that renders her milk indigestible or from overexertion or over- 
heating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making 
mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his food 
in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a 
horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or 



62 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality of the horse, 

such as disease, overwork, poor food, or lack of care, may indirectly 
bring on indigestion by weakening the digestive organs. 

Symptoms. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; 
refusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appe- 
tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there Ts a disposition 
on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, 
soiled bedding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular to-day. 
loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound; grain is often passed whole 
in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, under- 
going but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable 
quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the 
skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hide- 
bound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may 
yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning 
outward the upper lip. There may be more or less colicky pain. In 
the chronic cases there is mental depression; the horse is sluggish and 
dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a "tucked up" 
appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. 

Treatment. — One should commence with the food — its quality, 
quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, 
besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the 
condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing the observations as 
best we may. endeavor to locate the seat of the trouble. If the teeth 
are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down ; if any are decayed 
they must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or 
bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the 
grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. 

Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that are 
operating as causes are to be removed by appropriate treatment, as 
advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach 
and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used: 
Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. 
These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful 
doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by 
dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of water and given as a 
drench. 

As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salts. 2 
pounds; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of 
this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea 
exists, the treatment advised below may be used. 

Diarrhea. — Diarrhea is i\\w to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or 
to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty food, drinking 
stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating sub- 
stances, to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during 



SUPERPURGATION. 63 

cold nights, or low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to 
scour and are called " washy " by horsemen ; they are those with long 
bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are 
almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to 
work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diar- 
rhea may exist as a complication of other diseases as pneumonia and 
influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver. 

The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or 
without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. 

Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and 
judgment. If due to faulty food or water it is sufficient to change 
these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best 
gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which 
nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used 
if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the ces- 
sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging con- 
tinues, it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch 
water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul- 
phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good 
results follow the use of pow T dered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of 
bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. It should be remem- 
bered in all cases to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. 
If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We 
should feed sparingly of good, easily digested foods. With that 
peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can 
be done, as a rule. . They should be watered and fed as long as possi- 
ble before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompany- 
ing diarrhea, baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a 
cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor, this can 
be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in 
water, repeated twice a da}'. Be slow to resort to either the vege- 
table or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to 
change of food and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards 
feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light foods. The body should 
be warmly clothed. 

kSuPERPURGATioN. — This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux 
from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action 
of a physic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflamma- 
tion of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in 
rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every 
precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the follow- 
ing circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to 
horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating dis- 
eases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of 
cold air ; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is 



64 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is 
given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. 

Small and often-repealed physics are also to be avoided, as they pro- 
duce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to 
this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse 
and give him sloppy food until the medicine begins to operate; clothe 
the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm 
water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to 
twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or " set," as horsemen 
say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue. 
however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea 
and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken 
of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive 
brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or 
rive times a day. 

Laminitis " founder " is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and 
is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse 
on moist sawdust or some similar bedding. 

Dysentery. — This disease, sometimes called "'bloody flux, ,, is an 
intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, 
and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery 
are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and 
passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes 
quite prevalent among foals. 

Causes. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses 
in particular for a long time on low\ wet, marshy pastures, without 
other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dys- 
entery) ; exposure during cold, wet weather: decomposed foods; stag- 
nant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable 
matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the 
existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In 
suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant foods or 
from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by 
exposure to cold and damp, to irritant food, or to worms. 

Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes 
notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and 
for the mosl part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid 
fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous mem- 
brane and blood may be passed, or the evacuations may be muco-puru- 
lent ; there is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal 
pain: the subject lies down -,\ great deal: the pulse is quickened and 
the temperature elevated. Thirst is :i prominent symptom. In the 
adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the 
disease may end in death after a few days. 

Treatment. — This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place 



GASTROENTERITIS. 65 

more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that 
may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, 
warm, yet well- ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by 
frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and 
bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small 
quantities; the food, that which is light and easily digested. Medic- 
inally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to 
which has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or min- 
eral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing 
laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up 
by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the 
best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal. 
In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy con- 
dition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or 
from a cow. 

Gastro-enteritis. — This condition consists in an inflammation of 
the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, 
or lining, membrane, as in gastro-intestinal catarrh, the inflammatory 
process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of 
the wall of the organ. 

This disease may be caused by irritant food, hot drinks, sudden 
chilling, moldy or decayed foods, foul water, parasites, or by chemical 
poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially 
infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. 
Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting 
in death are preceded by enteritis. 

The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to 
some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general 
the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain; 
fever develops ; the pulse and respiration become rapid ; the mucous 
membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon 
the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at 
the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed 
later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the 
feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps 
of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease 
is caused by moldy or damaged food there may be great muscular 
weakness with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability 
to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be 
shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the adminis- 
tration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid 
development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of 
animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symp- 
toms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To 

H. Do<-. 795, r>!)-2 5 



66 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered 
in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases 
of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression. 

The poison- that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, 
corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or 
chloride of zinc, lye or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, 
among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. 

The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be 
detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases 
food should be given in small amounts and should be of the most 
soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh 
grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with wisps of 
straw and alcohol, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the leg-. 
after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or 
with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It i< 
well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water ami 
frequently changed; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of 
the belly. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secre- 
tion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to -2 
drams, given every three or four hours. If there is constipation, the 
opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of 
bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses. 
Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor 
may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a 
drench. 

If putrid food has been consumed, creolin may be administered in 
doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there 
is obstinate constipation and a laxative must be employed, it should 
be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. For the various 
poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic, oxyhydrate of iron 
solution, 1 pint to 1 quart, or calcined magnesia one-half ounce in 1 
pint of water; corrosive sublimate, the whites of a dozen eggs or 2 
ounces of flowers of sulphur; sugar of lead, Glauber's salts. 1 pound 
in 1 quart of warm water, to be followed with iodide of potash, •"> 
drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days; sulphate of 
copper, milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron; sulphate of chlo- 
ride of zinc, milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia; lye or 
alkalies, as caustic potash or soda, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and 
Linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams; mineral acids, chalk, or calcined 
magnesia, or baking soda: later give linseed tea and opium. 

Hemorrhoids, or piles. — These are rare, comparatively, in horses. 
They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors 
after defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only 
when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly 
due to constipation, to irritation, or injuries, or follow from the 



HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 67 

severe straining during - dysentery. I have observed them to follow 
from severe labor pains in the mare. 

Treatment. — Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; 
they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors 
should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which 
scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be 
seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these 
tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with 
some anodyne wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and 
laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the 
rectum may be of service for a few days. 

Hernia, or rupture. — There are several different kinds of hernias 
that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symp- 
toms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into 
reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition ; and 
into inguinal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, accord- 
ing to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ 
can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, 
without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, 
and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible 
hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does 
not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one where 
the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or where from pressure 
upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circula- 
tion is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, in- 
flammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of 
the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be 
congenital or acquired. 

Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth 
to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until 
about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of 
a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and 
operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great 
majority of cases, as this enlargement often disappears by the time 
the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or 
surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the 
scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be 
treated the same as in an adult horse. 

Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, 
combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the in- 
guinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. 
At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning 
Avhen the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may 
not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, 
the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the ab- 



68 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

dominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. While 
the gut is thus Oiling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to 
move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of 
the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and 

its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal 
hernia, for often horses have this condition without suffering ineon- 
\ enience for years. 

Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrota] hernia, and. like the 
latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may be- 
come strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia 
is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the 
mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire 
horses, we can proceed to detail the symptoms of both strangulated, 
inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the 
existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind 
feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the 
inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum 
will be enlarged and lobulated ; by pressure we may force a portion of 
the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling 
sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum 
and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will 
be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. 

The history of these cases will materially aid us. as the owner can 
often assure us of preceding attacks of ,w colic," more or less severe, 
that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta- 
ble manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagnos- 
tic, but. probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any 
other bowel diseases. The diagnosis can, in many cases, be made only 
by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the 
bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring. 

Treatment of inguinal hernia. — If the reader can be sure of the 
existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and. 
with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering 
bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pres- 
sure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If these 
means fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by 
means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and 
castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." 

Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through 
some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may 
ocelli- at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused 
by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral 
hernia i-- mosl common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the 
weight of the fetus or some degenerative changes taking place in the 
abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling. 



HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 69 

at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal 
tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines 
can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable 
position. 

Treatment of ventral hernia. — In many instances there is no occa- 
sion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treat- 
ment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted 
by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If 
one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and 
particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application 
of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. 

Umbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or 
omentum ("caul' 1 ) through the navel, forming a "tumor" at this 
point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the im- 
perfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. 
Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con- 
genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its 
second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these, cases from 
the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro- 
portionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines 
out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. 
Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals 
is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing 
them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The con- 
traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur- 
ing neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Acci- 
dents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as 
ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. 

Treatment of umbilical hernia. — In the treatment of umbilical 
hernia it should be remembered that congential hernias are often 
removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical hernias less fre- 
quently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be 
mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being 
held in place by a broad tight bandage placed around the animal's 
body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad 
in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as 
the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial 
bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another 
treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists 
in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then 
applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. 
This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very 
many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to 
inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe 
at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in 



70 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if 
the syringe or solution is not sterile. 

Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, 
cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned 
into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one 
or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as 
possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place 
by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen 
and securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords 
too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intes- 
tines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhe- 
sion is established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually 
closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the 
fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the ad- 
hesion is formed. 

Diaphragmatic hernia. — This consists of the passage of any of the 
abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into 
the cavity pf the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often 
impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied 
by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often 
assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat character- 
istic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, 
may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of 
the bowels. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of 
hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse 
up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause 
the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not 
enough, however ; it must be kept there. 

Peritonitis. — Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous mem- 
brane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within 
the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It 
is, however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension 
of the inflammatory action involving organs covered by the perito- 
neum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of 
the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, fol- 
lowing the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, 
invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. 

Symptoms.- Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill; the horse is 
not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so. moves with a stitF or 
sore gait : he paws with the front feel and may strike at his belly with 
the hind ones: lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while 
down, he maintains during most of the time the standing position : he 
walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pres- 
sure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or 
kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are 



DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. 71 

fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 
102° to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is 
quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats pei minute, and is 
hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation 
of the serous membrane, and if accompanied by colicky symptoms, 
and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of 
the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. 
Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If 
death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a 
chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the 
cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, 
as a rule, results in death. 

The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteri- 
tis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is 
to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitute the main 
dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, 
consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, 
turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purga- 
tives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to 
move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom 
necessary to resort even to this. 

Ascites, or dropsy or the abdomen. — This is seen as a result of 
subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the 
liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs.' There will be found, on opening the 
cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid; 
from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear 
in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains 
numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. 

Symptoms. — There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait 
of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight 
colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with 
the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. 
Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease 
the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the 
abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on 
both sides of the belly ; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen 
we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an ad- 
vanced one, the horse is potbellied to the extreme, and dropsical 
swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. 

Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Ep- 
som or Glauber's salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be 
given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumula- 
tion of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence 
(though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day 
saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the applica- 



72 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tion of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min- 
eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one 
consisting of pewdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal 
parts; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or 
mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods and gentle 
exercise complete the treatment. 

DISEASES or THE LIVER. 

This organ in the horse is, in the United States, but rarely the seat 
of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is 
affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall 
bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver 
diseases; as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi 
(stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, 
as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in 
cold climates lung discuses prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver 
rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, 
and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There 
are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us 
examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice 
(yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) 
and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in 
appearance. 

Hepatitis, ok inflammation of the liver. — This disease may be 
general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form. 

The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffer- 
ing from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated_and 
clay-colored dung balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general 
febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side; 
looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection. 
may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where 
pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the 
right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward 
the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting 
lil. during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due 
to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood 
vessels. 

Causes. — Among the causes that lead to this disease we must men- 
tion firsl the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during 
hot weather. Horses thai are well fed and receive but little exercise 
are the best subjects Tor diseases of this organ. We musl add to 
these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side 
over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, for- 
eign bodies— as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their 
wanderings have entered the liver — and, lastly, in some instances, the 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 73 

extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving 
this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, 
abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no 
trace of disease whatever. 

Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 
ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if 
had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma- 
tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, 
and from 4 to G quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as 
Glauber's salts or the artificial Carlsbad salt, is indicated. These 
may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to 
be fed sparingly on soft food, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment 
proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse 
afterwards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a too 
highly nutritious character and not excessive. 

Jaundice, icterus, or the yellows. — This is a condition caused 
by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was for- 
merly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a 
symptom of disorder of the liver. " The yellows " is observed by 
looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these 
parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white 
or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The 
urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and con- 
stipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom 
of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal 
has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and 
absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous mem- 
branes follows. Jaundice may also exist during the presence of 
simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening 
of the liver, etc. 

Treatment. — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the 
system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving 
purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 
drams, should be given. Glauber's salts in handful doses once or 
twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor 
oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may 
be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open 
by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods. 

Kupture or the liver. — This is known to occur at times in the 
horse, most frequently in old fat horses and those that get but little 
exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for 
years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. 
Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver had rup- 
tured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver 
indicate that this organ may suffer small rupture and yet the horse 



74 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent or 
tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from 
hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particu- 
larly liable to rupture. 

Causes. — The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive 
muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a 
kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. 

The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent 
of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of 
abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if exten- 
sive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing be- 
comes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous mem- 
branes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or 
running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats 
profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, stag- 
gers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid 
running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, 
stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we 
know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium 
in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be 
given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements 
of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, 
we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram 
doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, 
every half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the 
chloride of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed 
upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as 
a means of checking the hemorrhage. 

Biliary calculi, or gallstones. — These are rarely found in the 
horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and 
to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but 
should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, 
accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow- 
ing tli'.M' attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones 
are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give 
medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass 
on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion 
any inconvenience. 

Diseases of the pancrf.as and spleen. — Diseases of the pancreas 
and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it 
is impossible to write anything concerning either of these organs and 
their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of 
practical value. 




o5 ^ 'o <o M QO oj $ ^ sj S3 saj ^ $ 6; 



PLATED 




E 99 




Thf> ar/ir/i 



J 5 ( ITS. 

1 Bots in the stomach. 

2 Bots in the duodenum 



JULIUS BIEN SCON 1 



PLATE III. 



Ojc-vlu /.» equL. 



Strongy-lujf equinus. 




lscari<i equoiv.un 
INTE STIJS^AL WOR M S 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., 

Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. 

[Revised in 1903 by the author.] 
USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are 
excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived 
directly from the food or from the muscular and other nitrogenized 
tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through 
which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the 
mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural 
digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction ; or, finally, 
poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal 
cell life or of the life of bacteria or other germs that have entered the 
body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the 
body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs 
are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when 
their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly 
show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective 
tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this 
influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can 
suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the 
urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual bal- 
ance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys 
during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid ex- 
hales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, 
whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspond- 
ingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually 
kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the 
water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely 
in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and 
gravel. Similarly the passage in the sweat of some of the solids that 
normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the 
skin and produce troublesome eruptions. 

PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. 

A disordered liver contributes to the production, under different 
circumstances, of an excess of biliary coloring matter, which stains 

75 



76 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products, which 
being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), 
favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies 
that tend, when in excess, to destroy the blood globules and to cause 
irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the 
urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, 
which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to 
impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of 
hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the 
urine, which irritate the kidneys even if the}' do not produce solid 
deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, 
and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce 
various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, 
chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect 
nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the 
urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia, and endanger the forma- 
tion of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute 
fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste 
products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased, 
and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the 
retained waste products poison the system at large. 

Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free onward 
flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that 
liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood 
strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken 
with the food and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone 
and those found in irritant diuretic plants, are especially injurious to 
the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether present in musty 
hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vege- 
tables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of food rich 
in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, lentils, rape cake. 
cotton-seed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concen- 
trated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold 
rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to 
further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, 
sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or 
inflammation. 

The right kidney, weighing 23^ ounces, is shaped like a French 
bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the 
last two ribs. The left kidney (Plate IV) resembles a heart of cards, 
and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib 
only. Each consists of three distinct parts — (a) the external (corti- 
cal), or vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate 
capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the 
beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface 



PLATE IV. 




a, Cortical ! or vascular) portion b.Medullary (or tubular) portion 
c.Peripheral portion of the latter t <L,Iriterior of the peUvts; d'/l , 
Arms of the pelvis; r, Borderofthe crest; fjnfurvdibulurrv; g.Ureter. 



Marx deLafter D'Arboval p.669 



JULIUS b 



LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH KIDNEY 



DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 77 

of the sinuous secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward 
the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medul- 
lary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and 
nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kid- 
ney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion 
of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large saccular 
reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes 
pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through 
a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of 
the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of 
the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable 
reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its 
presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circu- 
lar muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by 
looped muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the 
neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder 
the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends 
from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and 
in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through 
a pink conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an 
inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular muscular fibers 
closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly 
in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 4^ inches from its 
external opening. 

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE. 

These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation 
caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, strad- 
dles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in 
excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the 
straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may 
be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp 
turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, drop- 
ping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is sugges- 
tive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, 
and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand intro- 
duced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect 
any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kid- 
neys even may be reached. 

EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. 

In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. 
In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong 
odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transpar- 



78 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ency, while on a green ration there is an abundant white deposit of 
carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be 
looked for: (1) Color: "White from deposited salts of lime; brown or 
red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile 
or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored 
from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, 
biown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) Density: The horse's urine 
may be 1.0:30 to 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and 
may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) Chemical reaction, as ascertained 
by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has 
alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt 
and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissues (in starvation or ab- 
stinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) 
Organic constituents, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by 
strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts 
of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, 
blood, or bile. (5) In its salts, which may crystallize out spontane- 
ously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. 

Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be 
drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows : 
If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if 
very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with 
distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop 
until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; 
if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add 
strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen ; 
if dissolved it was probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albu- 
men is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it i- seen 
in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules 
(anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases 
of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from tin 1 
veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflamma- 
tion of the lungs and pleurae, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless 
from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory disease- of 
the kidneys, acute or chronic. 

Casts of the uriniferous tubes can only be seen by placing the sus- 
pected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic 
and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover-glass is 
touched, and showing a uniform clear transparency (waxy) or entan- 
gled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened red-blood 
globules or clear refrangenl oil globules. They may be even densely 
opaque from crystals of earthy salts. 

Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and 
are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that 
each cell shows two or three nuclei. 



diseases of the urinary oegans. 79 

diuresis (polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of 

urine). 

This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a 
low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a 
rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. 

Causes.-— Its causes may be any agent — medicinal, alimentary, or 
poisonous — which unduly stimulate the kidneys; the reckless admin- 
istration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack 
horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still 
imperfectly cured ; an excess of roots or other very watery food ; a 
full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond 
of it ; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not 
been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. 
Thus hay, straw, or oats secured in wet seasons and heating in the rick 
or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma som- 
nolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and espe- 
cially in rainy districts. 

Symptoms. — The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and 
passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being 
pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a 
great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So 
great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of 
solids in any given specimen amounts in twenty-four hours to far 
more than the normal— a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of 
the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, 
the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, 
the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, 
and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits 
are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest 
exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, 
or he may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the 
cause ceases to operate, he may make a somewhat tardy recovery. 

Treatment. — This consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty 
drugs, poisons, or food, and supplying sound hay and grain free from 
all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed 
in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to 
sheath and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or 
phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered 
gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the 
system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calcu- 
lated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. 
In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than 
large doses of iodide of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases 
creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams) 
properly diluted, may be resorted to. 



80 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MKUlTls. GLYCOSURIA, <>K IXOSURIA). 

This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather 
than of the kidneys, yet. as the most prominent symptom is the sweet 
urine, it may be treated here. 

Causes. — Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into 
disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most 
prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- 
ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in 
the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the 
resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in 
the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective. 
as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not 
undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also 
in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is 
more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the 
urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a 
hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super- 
abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours 
only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal 
glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and 
it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by 
agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. 
Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at 
the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, 
which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides 
over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and 
irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- 
sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the 
pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and. in keeping with 
this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com- 
plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the 
organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by 
the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from 
other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, 
pon-. cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by 
interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in 
destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by 
cutting the nervous branch connecting these two. in injury to the 
spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or 
fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which 
directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause 
saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric 
acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and 
phlorizin. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion 



BACCHABMTE DIABETES (SWEET UBINE). 81 

of a pale urine of a high density i 1.060 and upward), rapid loss of 
condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the 
bowels, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet princi- 
ple — grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de- 
tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be 
detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to I ounces 
the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70 
in 80 £ F. for twelve hour-;, when the sugar will be found to have been 
changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will 
give indication of the amount of -ugar transformed; thus a density of 
L.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15 
grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. 

Inosite. or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and 
even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. It- presence may be 
indicated by it- sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal- 
lois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to 
dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- 
rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue i.- left that i- 
changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis- 
appears on cooling and reappears on heating. 

In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and 
belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the 
lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. 

Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable 
disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a 
run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, Avell- 
aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 
1 ounce daily) and alkalies ( carbonate of potas.-ium. one-fourth 
ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping. 
or even leeching over tin- last rib-. Diseases of the brain or pancreas 
may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be 
mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, bean-. 
vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very 
best remedial agencies. It may be given a- skimmed milk or butter- 
milk, and in the la-t case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic 
acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often 
entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. 
Codeia. one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by 
Doctor Tvson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grain- thrice 
daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, 
bromide of potassium. 4 dram-, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re- 
sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful 
in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonic- (especially 
mix vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and 
general health. 

H. Doc. 7'.t."». .v.*-!' 6 



82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

BLOODY URINE, OK HEMATURIA. 

Cause. — As seen in the horse. Moody urine is usually the direct 
result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, 
lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by 
stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, 
occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub- 
stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. 
Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape 
of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, 
however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, 
the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's 
blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. 

The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate 
admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication 
as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni- 
formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder 
or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding 
from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules 
and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- 
scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether 
there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in 
the bladder or urethra. 

Treatment. — The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat- 
ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and 
then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be 
avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or 
urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin- 
seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 3 drams, 
acetate of lead one-half drain, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of 
turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water 
to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. 

HEMOGLOBINURIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). 

Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form- 
ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss 
of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark- 
colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary 
organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora 
in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and 
muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish 
urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on 
highly nitrogenized food (oats. bean-, pease, vetches, cotton-seed 
meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. 
The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work, 



BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. 83 

even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi- 
tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exorcise 
or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as 
the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will 
usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer- 
cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the 
sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the 
gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of 
nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi- 
tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable 
to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. 
It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, 
attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, 
and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable 
than the docile gelding. 

Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro- 
duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani- 
mals, including horses. 

Symptoms. — In the milder forms this affection may appear as a 
lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- 
den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes 
of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. 
The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full 
ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred 
paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable 
suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving 
flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling 
body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, 
the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs 
being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- 
self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but 
there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The 
pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of 
brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark 
brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. 
The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo- 
rated constituents of the blood. 

It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, 
which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early 
stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind 
limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is 
an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the 
stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to 
stand. 

Prevention. — The prevention of this serious affection lies in re- 



84 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

striding the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at 
work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for 

a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been con- 
demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative 
(one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salts), and have graduated exercise, 
beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. 

Treatment. — The treatment of the mild eases may consist in a laxa- 
tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). 
Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in- 
stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of 
potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The 
latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidney-. 
Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has 
succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a ride, it is desira- 
ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the 
above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be 
continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to 
calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over 
the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the 
spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre- 
tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re- 
sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum 
one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- 
peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, 
and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular 
weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of mix 
vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and 
sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. 

During the course of the disease friction to the limb- i- useful, and 
in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along 
the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he 
must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side 
at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he 
may be helped up and even supported in a sling. 

ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. 

Inflammations of the kidney- have been differentiated widely, ac- 
cording as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup- 
purative or not. with increased or shrunken kidney, etc.: but in a 
work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under 
acute <>r chronic inflammation. 

Causes. — The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely 
varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products 
passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of 
other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist- 



INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85 

ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis- 
ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is 
another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the 
escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and 
tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom- 
position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of 
ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of 
bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con- 
sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the 
bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or 
other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp- 
tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the 
reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the 
kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of 
blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver 
disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant 
products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car- 
ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and 
injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. 

Symjjtoms. — The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff- 
ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in 
lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes 
groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the 
flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- 
derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony 
processes G inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed 
frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes 
mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the 
microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by 
acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the 
resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. 
The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts 
beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within 
the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up 
and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in 
small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the 
kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. 

Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. 
Then, if the suffering and fever are high. "2 to 4 quarts of blood may 
be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in 
high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far 
as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint 
of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- 
neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be 
supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be 



86 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed 
may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum 
as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per- 
sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin 
pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in 
against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a 
blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens 
and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and 
the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been 
started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of 
Glauber's salts. 

During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, 
ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should 
also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some 
time after all active symptoms have subsided. 

CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly 
associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, 
and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only 
prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on 
blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected 
with faulty conditions of the system — as indigestion, heart disease, 
lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in 
short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on 
a simple local injury. 

It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as 
shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges- 
tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases 
rather than a disease by itself. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and 
increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine 
(increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it 
contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav- 
ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad 
cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, 
and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in 
chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty 
skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer- 
tion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the 
muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So 
are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp- 
toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and 
casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. 

Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is 



DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87 

liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else- 
where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function 
can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with 
this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the 
general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given 
(phosphate of iron 2 drams, mix vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian 
root 4 drams, daily) or GO drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic 
acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele- 
vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta- 
tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute 
inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus- 
tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. 
In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu- 
sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping 
over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and 
oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by 
introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper 
and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it 
closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass 
and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. 

As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to 
secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. 

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. 

Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms 
resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- 
nized during life. 

PARASITES. 

To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcms, the larval, or 
bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog; 
also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder worm of an unknown 
tapeworm ; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the 
urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro- 
scopic hooklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine 
and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of 
roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence 
can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the 
entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus 
c<jti/iiiis or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in 
the kidney itself. 

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. 

This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the 
bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may 
be accompanied by a painful contraction of the muscles on the body 



88 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these 
will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the 
horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. 

Causes. — The causes are usually hard and continuous driving with- 
out opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air 
when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or 
the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, 
the presence of acrid diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence 
of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in 
harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. 
Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, 
hence the free passage of water is usually a sj^mptom of relief. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining 
to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain 
efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural 
position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, 
paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks 
back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts 
to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum 
the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient 
will often shrink when it is handled. 

It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is 
often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because 
the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced 
backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. 
In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the 
hind one- stretched back beyond the natural posture, and makes fre- 
quent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers 
naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and 
only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often 
neglected until it is irremediable. In cases where the irritation has 
caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that 
organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in 
all case- to examine for the impacted bowed, forming a bend, or loop, 
at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The 
impacted intestine feels soft and doughy, and is easily indented with 
the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resil- 
ient, overdistended bladder. 

It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined 
by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or 
in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure 
of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, tin 1 hard, 
impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the 
lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median 
line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part 







Structure of the Kidney . Diagramm; 
a ■ Medullary fa, 

CUl< 

mil artery. 18 Sinn.! 
glomerulus, 19, Straight a 
pyramia 

■ 
of the pyramids of Fen 

,v,,,, fthe urirujj in which the 

i >,/</rtt' CUIa 



Geo.M ■ ifl ■ • ■ 

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY 






PI. ATI'. VI 




Renal Glomerulus. 

a, Artery of the. glomerulus; b,/3ra/uh supplying the afferent 
of the glomerulus,- c, Afferent vessel of the glomerate ; 
ery going dircc/ly to the capiJlary plexus of the cortical 
substance e, Capillary plexus; f, Glomerulus. 




Kciuil Glomerulus wiih its afferentvessi'lsandefleren.ls. 

fthe 
Glomeruli 
ina into corpuscle e,of Mulpig/ti . 



\n< n< )sc( >i >ir anat< l\iy of kidney. 






PLATE VJ1. 




Phasphatic calculus, uric and nucleus. 




WSmr 



Calculus of oxalate of lime 




Hen cil casts. Some deprived of 
epithelium. Two are deeper coloi'ed 
//■a/// f he presence ofura/e of soda. 



Straight forceps 

•/ i a/cali . 









CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOR REMOVAL 



PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 89 

of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is 
usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu- 
ating. 

Treatment.— Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of 
harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn 
the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa- 
thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with 
dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow 
whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc- 
ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an 
injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of 
tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is 
easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. 
In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press 
from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. 
Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the 
urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on 
carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis 
must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end 
of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus 
it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance 
must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being 
introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter. 3^ 
feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical 
instrument maker. 

PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 

Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has 
been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way 
from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and 
hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and 
in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all 
these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of 
disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken 
back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail. and. it may be. of 
the hind limbs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when 
the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs 
and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is 
retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be 
expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of 
the abdomen ; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand 
introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still 
half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and 
give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the 



90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup- 
pression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction 
of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy 
should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course 
of that duct. 

Treatment. — Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de- 
termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or 
disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and 
the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent 
overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists 
after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of 
spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water 
over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with 
a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be 
applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily 
doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered 
Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild 
current of electricity daily may succeed. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER ( CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS) . 

Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. 
It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat- 
ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of 
a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other 
foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac- 
terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the 
bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained 
decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and 
irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating 
urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex- 
tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to 
cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause 
cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend 
from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the 
animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, 
looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. 
More characteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, result- 
ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red. or more commonly floc- 
culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which 
persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan- 
ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs 
from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and 
closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is 
pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found 



DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 91 

to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro- 
duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of 
the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through 
the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, 
contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly 
epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei 
when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular 
casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be 
found on examination through rectum or vagina. 

Treatme?it implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons 
in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering 
agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the 
urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac- 
uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed 
out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This 
must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, 
because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting 
layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw 
and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh 
grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of 
slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to 
inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and 
opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, 
tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great 
advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli- 
cation of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on 
the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the 
anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, 
a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and mix vomica one-half dram will 
serve to restore lost tone. 

IRRITABLE BLADDER. 

Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- 
der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small 
quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character 
and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty-four 
hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently 
in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome 
and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all 
control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove 
docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases 
the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow- 
erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares 
during the period of " heat.' 1 '' 

An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any 



92 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will 
avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder 
should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri- 
tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any 
sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the 
penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should 
be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch 
the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords 
on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins by 
having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those 
proving troublesome when " in heat " may have 4-dram doses of bro- 
mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. 
Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna 
extract (1 drain), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam 
copaiba (1 dram). 

DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. 

These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse 
I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially 
troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a 
narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. 

Symptopns. — The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine 
and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder 
with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may 
be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the 
finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more 
satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed 
by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment 
is eminently unsatisfactory. 

DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT I'RAC III S. 

This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of 
the natural channel (uraehus), through which the urine is discharged 
into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage 
of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is 
prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of 
the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine 
i- prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it 
would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause 
irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the 
course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre- 
quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small 
caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. 
In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, 
while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently 
with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. 



DISEASES OP THE BLADDER. 93 

The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a 
human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly 
closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis- 
sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little 
skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying 
of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible 
so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. 
In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to 
keep off the flies. 

EVERS10N OF THE BLADDER. 

This can only occur in the female. It consists in the turning of the 
organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears 
as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and 
protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, 
or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its 
upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side 
a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them 
drop by drop. 

This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the 
bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression 
during a difficult parturition. 

The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of 
laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and 
returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and 
directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the 
surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it 
may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad 
to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk 
of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This 
method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against 
bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the 
return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 
ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. 
(See E version of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a 
few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity 
will favor retention. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET ). 

This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet 
it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders. 
It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the 
passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel ; by the irri- 
tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without ; by blows on 
the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while 
being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare 



94 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 

served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from 
Leucorrhea; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by 
the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled 
with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of 
the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, 
which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi- 
tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the 
end of "the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in 
cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will 
show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in 
this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted w r ill fail to com- 
plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the 
mare is liable to follow. 

Treatment in the early stages consists in a dos.e of physic (aloes 6 
drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If 
there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra 
twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where 
the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second 
stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 
20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface 
of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) 
may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has 
appeared. 

Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from 
service, as should mares with leucorrhea. 

STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. 

This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the 
result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a 
stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret- 
ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane 
occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of 
that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine 
stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful 
erections. It. must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe- 
ters just huge enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a 
day. and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. 
The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax 
solution and well oiled before it is introduced. 

URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OK GRAVEL). 

These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- 
cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart 
as a line powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones, 
of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ- 



STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95 

ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the 
healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be 
thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is 
important to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in 
health : 

Water 918. 5 

Urea 13. 4 

Uric acid and urates . 1 

Hippuric acid -_ 2<>. 4 

Lactic acid and lactates 1. 2 

Mucus and organic matter 22.0 

Sulphates (alkaline) 1. 2 

Phosphates (lime and soda) .2 

Chlorides (sodium) 1. 

Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 16.0 



1000. 



The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine 
of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore 
forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded 
crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this 
material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some- 
times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In 
hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly 
grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates — the prod- 
ucts of the wear of tissues — the carbonates being the result of oxida- 
tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, 
is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in 
many cases is the most abundant constituent. 

Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning 
up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor- 
tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, 
Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and 
rabbit that, under the fullplay of the breathing (oxidizing) forces, 
oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. 
In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases 
in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate 
of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the 
urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric 
acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively, 
as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous (is- 
sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out 
in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. 
When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is 
resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Wcehler and Frer- 
richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased 



96 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be 
inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food 
alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of 
i he body. An important element of its production is, however, the 
imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is 
liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, 
etc.). This is. above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed 
to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food gener- 
ally, potatoes, etc.). 

Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the 
urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon- 
ate of lime — from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids) 
becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag- 
nesia derived from the food. 

The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary 
calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in 
the urine in two conditions — (a) when the ration is excessive and 
specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape 
cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (b) when, through the morbid 
destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, 
a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under 
these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for- 
mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained 
in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off 
ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag 
nesia to form a double salt — phosphate of ammonia and magnesia — 
which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of 
this salt is. however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much 
more frequent in that of man and sheep. 

These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form 
ingredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are 
usually present it is only in minute quantities. 

The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion- 
abty contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such 
matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down 
in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap- 
proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider- 
ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive 
ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the 
source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook 
the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva- 
tion of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension 
of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of 
solids i> thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished 
there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when 



STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97 

the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi 
are more common in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those 
denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, 
in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in 
those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are 
most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry 
feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in 
summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of 
water by the skin. 

In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis- 
tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the 
urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon- 
ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be 
again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of 
the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. 
Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, 
as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, 
Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America ; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, 
Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England ; of Poitou and Landes, 
in France; and Munich, in Bavaria. 

But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions 
can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an 
efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and 
immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a 
large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu- 
men, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, 
etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline 
bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit- 
ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess 
without the formation of stone or gravel ; and again one with dilute 
urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. 

Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only 
show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- 
mined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but 
they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres, 
capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi- 
fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition 
is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and 
bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. 

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must 
consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence 
of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus 
diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- 
neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma- 
H. Doc. 705, 50-2 7 



98 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies 
of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter- 
mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is 
now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte- 
ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are 
further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped 
in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. 

The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the 
magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from 
goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro- 
duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine 
as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary 
salts in the form of calculi. 

CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. 

These have been named according to the place where they are 
found, renal (kidney), vretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral 
(urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been 
otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit- 
uent, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi. 
The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth 
on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the 
cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of 
the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations, 
while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon 
each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, 
have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them 
the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that 
fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, 
produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough 
surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep 
brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring 
matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain. 

Renal calculi.— These may consist of minute, almost microscopic, 
deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but 
more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The 
larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the 
pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded 
swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline 
surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white 
aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been 
called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, 
crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car- 
bonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less 
frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, 



STONE, OR GRAVEL. 99 

pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of 
oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are 
formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, 
and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a 
loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, 
is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney. 
These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and 
without oxalate. 

Sym,ptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud- 
denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing 
of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal 
suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is 
associated with stiifness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage 
of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe- 
cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and 
pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid- 
ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis 
are added. 

Uretral calculi. — These are so called because they are found in the 
passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply 
small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney 
and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms 
almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that 
the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the 
impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on 
into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the 
ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine 
may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may 
end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous 
capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly 
blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning. 

Treatment of renal and uretral calculi. — Treatment is unsatisfac- 
tory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters 
and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which 
will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and 
even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery 
fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from 
behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella- 
donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of 
the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the 
same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be 
kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by 
soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also 
favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to 
carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool 



100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor- 
tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, 
ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and 
the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage 
of urine with gritty particles, by stillness of the loins and hind limbs, 
and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run 
at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long- 
continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break- 
ing down of a calcnlns, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the 
organic spongelike framework of the calcnlns causes it to swell and 
thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con- 
tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids 
(muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and 
cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these 
methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys 
develops, treat as advised under that head. 

Stone in the bladder {vesical calculus, or cystic calculus). — These 
may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is 
rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color. 
These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder 
being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. 
The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin 
concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out- 
ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of 
lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder 
contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made 
up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. 
This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. 
Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder 
by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic 
matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con- 
sistency and without stratification. 

Symptoms of stone in the bladder. — The symptoms of stone in the 
bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough 
mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane 
and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled 
with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times 
the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain 
and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic 
variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether 
absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incon- 
tinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair 
on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases 
alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with 
the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder 



STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101 

can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most 
easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not 
grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to 
move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is 
present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation 
is left. 

In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced 
through the short urethra. 

Treatment of stone in the bladder. — The treatment of stone in the 
bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare 
this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly 
warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage 
of. the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt 
exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually 
pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder 
and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now 
grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold 
of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the 
same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in 
seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half 
full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced 
into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be 
treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. 

The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- 
ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus 
and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the 
bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with 
tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon 
which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may 
be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward 
and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid 
along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. 

The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being 
simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back- 
ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected 
into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure 
of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. 
The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and 
from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide 
it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin 
at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The 
skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand 
pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed 
with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in- 
cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood 



102 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

vessel. It is in making the. obliquely lateral incision in the subse- 
quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such 
danger is to be apprehended. 

If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may 
be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the 
forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight* stem 
bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an 
obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a 
groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may be" 
seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again 
and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required 
to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- 
ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this wax- 
must be washed out as advised below. 

When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the 
bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a. catheter 
by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand 
introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow 
out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is 
empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double 
tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube 
and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap- 
parent than real, as the retention of the w T ater until the magma has 
been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacu- 
ation. 

To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding 
(dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease, 
wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must 
be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging 
the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxa- 
tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give 
daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. 
Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the 
tone of the stomach and s}^stem at large. 

Urethral calculus {stone in the urethra). — This is less frequent in 
horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra 
in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform 
appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed 
there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to 
pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through 
the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore 
are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the 
chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. 
They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of 
the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from 



STONE, OK GRAVEL. 103 

that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them 
most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and 
immediately behind this. 

Symptoms of urethral calculus. — The symptoms are violent strain- 
ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water 
in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the 
swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of 
a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will 
strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested 
higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive 
knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface 
of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the 
neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. 
In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point 
of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis- 
tended tube fluctuating on pressure. 

Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to 
extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the 
penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine- 
pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra ; or, if necessary, a 
probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, 
or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been 
arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through 
the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free 
(protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from 
its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind 
the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between 
the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered 
tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has 
been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision 
must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for- 
ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be 
stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will 
be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a 
teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. 

Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or biloeular cavity). — 
These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also 
applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the 
blind pouches (biloeular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end 
of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- 
like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, 
phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic 
matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the 
sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and 
smeared with sweet oil. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

By W. II. Habbaugh, V. S. 

[Revised in 19<>:? by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] 

The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu- 
merated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; 
the nasal chambers, through which the air ]ms>es in the head; the 
sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the 
pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; 
the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the 
bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from 
the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial 
tubes, which penetrate and conve}' air to all parts of the lungs; the 
lungs. 

The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the 
walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, 
completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those 
of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, 
and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of 
respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do 
with the diseases under consideration. 

Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- 
ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded bj^ the mucous membrane. Near 
the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting 
the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the 
opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from 
the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or 
fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely 
separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the 
nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous 
compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones. 

The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the 
entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently 
diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. 
The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with 
the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same 
membrane that lines the nasal chambers: their presence increases the 
volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its 
weight. 

The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the 
nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than 
104 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 

the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as 
many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable 
to know and study the causes. 

CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given 
under a common head, Because even a simple cold, if neglected or 
badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and 
terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are 
changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract 
disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to 
prevent other exciting causes. 

Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a 
mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than 
city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it 
is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables 
should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that 
strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a 
stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit 
it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason 
for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near 
the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can 
least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and 
cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot 
stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a 
cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature 
that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem- 
perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. 

A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as 
much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold 
to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed 
from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than 
warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the 
stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom- 
ical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress 
of pure air in order to make the stable warm. 

Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers 
allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is 
a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves 
gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a 
horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; 
rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat- 
ment. When a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to 
allow him to stand in a draft ; it is the best plan to walk him until his 
temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over 



106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often 
causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- 
longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccus- 
tomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should 
be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When 
the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or 
cold, diseases of the organs of respiration fare most frequent. 

It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- 
ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but 
they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will 
often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con- 
siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he 
may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. 

WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. 

Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused 
by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or 
by getting " run into." or by running against something. Occasion- 
ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to 
effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the 
majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con- 
servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts 
should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much 
time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably 
interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, 
or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi- 
tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir- 
cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' 
silk and needles for this operation ; good linen thread or ordinary silk 
thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept 
clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed 
away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 
parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object 
on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two 
halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him 
rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days. 
except when at work or eating. 

TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. 

A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, 
under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a 
horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of 
a cheesy consistency. 

Treatment. — If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed 
out. nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out- 



COLD IN THE HEAD ( NASAL CATARRH ). 107 

side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but 
much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the 
animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and 
you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to 
be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse 
to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor; 
now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the 
back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the 
tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the 
blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. 
A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. 
Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. 

COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. 

Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- 
panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation 
may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in- 
side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes 
of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in 
young horses and in horses not acclimated. 

Symptoms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, 
congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish 
red or red. Soon a watery discharge form the nostrils makes its 
appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow 
over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily 
detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum 
or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat 
conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. 

To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper- 
ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the 
mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- 
tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will 
have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. 
The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough 
unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his 
nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called " blowing 
his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from 
the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous 
state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse. 
Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. 

Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or 
bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become 
chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be 
worked for a time. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good 
food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of 



108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

pure air can not be overestimated, I nit drafts must be avoided. The 
benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This 
is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling 
water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with 
every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay 
causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the 
horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot 
water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, 
but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, 
holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. 

The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, 
about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. 

Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, 
scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse 
evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of 
food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on 
short rations. 

If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections 
(enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day, 
but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild 
character. 

For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the 
appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 
ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow- 
dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a 
day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound 
the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take 
time, and do it right. 

If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- 
fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, 
to be described hereafter. 

If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con- 
tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This 
may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly 
understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger- 
ous diseases. 

CHRONIC CATARRH < OK NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN Tilt: SINUSES). 

This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the 
membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. Tt is 
manifested by :i persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish 
white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a 
neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases 
where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not 
received proper food, and. as a consequence, has become debilitated. 



CHRONIC CATARRH ( NASAL GLEET ). 109 

Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of 
the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows 
on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus 
and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is 
said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a 
cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to 
have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated 
bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has 
been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors 
filling up the cavity. 

Symptoms. — Great caution must be exercised when examining these 
cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, 
horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was 
nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This affection is not contagious. 
It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In 
most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify 
that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge 
may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times 
and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis- 
charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under 
and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul- 
iar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem- 
brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. 
If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders 
to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. 

The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar 
appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an 
enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone 
over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may 
be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, 
or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the 
horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the 
food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on 
the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth 
of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the 
sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted 
will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means 
the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may 
be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to 
the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres- 
sion where it is pressed upon with the finger. 

Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before 
treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in 
poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri- 



110 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 

tive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, 
should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head 
favors the discharge. 

The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, 
have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- 
tion are of the most value. For eight days give the following mix- 
ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered mix vomica, 1 ounce. Mix 
and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the 
food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 
3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur 
burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also 
a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the 
burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate 
the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also 
keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that 
the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay 
while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge 
cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused 
to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin 
by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in 
the usual way. 

If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must 
be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to 
remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity 
which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet 
where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only 
relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, 
this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non- 
professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus 
operandi. 

An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection 
of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. 

THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. 

This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the 
breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common 
cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, 
namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, 
etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only 
is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding 
the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is 
closed in this maimer, the breathing through the affected side will 
demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. 



TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. Ill 

NASAL POLYPUS. 

Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- 
ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are 
obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. 
They vary much in size ; some are so small that their presence is not 
manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, 
thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, 
or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, 
and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in 
size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of 
hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar- 
ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy 
snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of 
blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can 
be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the 
affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem- 
brane. 

The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other 
operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure 
one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor 
with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn 
from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The 
resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, 
such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils 
with surgeon's gauze. 

PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. 

This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, 
the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the 
tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as 
before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the 
back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into 
the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath- 
ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming 
symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from 
the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and 
accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and 
often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx 
the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. 
These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the 
trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's 
mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand 
back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re- 
moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose. 



112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. 

This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, 
influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it 
also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, 
is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. 

Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing- — causing a rupture 
of a small blood vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- 
riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood 
escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when 
the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, 
p. 13G.) In most eases bathing the head and washing out the nostril 
with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you 
will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, 
pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over 
the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to 
the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor- 
rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. 
Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, 
so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both 
nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor- 
rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of 
acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water ; or ergot, 1 ounce. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. 

As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both 
respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the 
larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the 
pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through 
which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the 
pharynx is a complication of other diseases — namely, influenza, 
strangles, etc. — and is probably always more or less complicated with 
inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent 
affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with 
the diseases of the digestive tract. 

SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 

The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just 
back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some- 
what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilage- and 
small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the 
respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin- 
uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords 
being situated within it: but in the horse this function is of little con- 
sequence. It dilute- and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating 
the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining 



SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 113 

it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food 
Lappens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues 
instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. 
This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining 
access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck 
of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the 
larynx. 

Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis- 
ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation 
of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as " sore 
throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure. 

Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by 
difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem- 
brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to 
the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel 
the food or water onward to the gullet ; or this same contraction of 
the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In 
many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and 
in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however, 
does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is 
involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw- 
bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx 
induces coughing. The head is more or less " poked out," and has 
the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose 
becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the 
disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy char- 
acter; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respira- 
tion, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal 
seems threatened with suffocation. 

Treatment. — In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for 
cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continu- 
ously for hours — until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of 
boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of 
water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture 
of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to 
the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming 
the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. 

The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall 
preferred), and should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body 
should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet 
should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, 
and, best of all, grass, if in season, which should be fresh. The man- 
ger, or trough, should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary 
one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. 
H. Doc 795, 50-2 -8 



114 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the 
animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might 
have than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A sup- 
ply of fresh water should be before him all the time ; he will not drink 
too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if pres- 
ent) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or 
four times during the twenty-four hours. 

A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of 
solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken to- 
gether, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to 
ear, and about G inches down over the windpipe, and in the space l>r 
tween the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for 
two or three days. 

If the animal is breathing with great difficult}-, persevere in steam- 
ing the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in 
every gallon of water he will drink ; even if he can not swallow much 
of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some 
benefit to the pharynx as a gargle. 

An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice pow- 
der may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If 
the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphine may be added 
to the electuary. 

When the breathing begins to be loud relief is aiforded in some cases 
by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi 
in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be 
repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause 
a free flow of saliva from the mouth. 

In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of 
tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words 
that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more 
difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of 
the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. 

The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be 
purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, 
a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected 
for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examina- 
tion, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or G inches below the 
throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an 
assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in 
the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below 
directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. 
Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates 
cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but 
if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do 



SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 115 

not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe suffi- 
ciently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested 
when the windpipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air 
is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may 
result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by wash- 
ing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get 
any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant 
to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the 
neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting 
into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If 
you have the self -adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound 
without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires 
to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around 
the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the 
blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, 
directing the tube downward toward the lungs. 

The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. 
The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- 
tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard 
countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, 
now breaths tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. 

The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the car- 
bolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the 
wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. 
Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the 
tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as 
soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the 
natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly 
cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by in- 
serting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not 
include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the 
carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until 
healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound 
may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can 
breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discon- 
tinued as soon as possible. 

It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, 
and especially when most urgentty required. In such instances there 
is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end 
or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the 
cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the 
strings over the neck. 

During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must 
not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils 



116 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and sig- 
nifies that the acute stage lias passed. At any time during the attack. 
if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammo- 
nia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal hack 
to work, hut give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and 
gradually increasing exercise may he given as soon as the horse is able 
to stand it. The food should he carefully selected and of good qual- 
ity. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed. 

If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be 
opened to allow the escape of pus, hut do not rashly plunge .1 knife 
into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains 
pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant appli- 
cation of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the 
purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a 
thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the 
attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodide 
of mercur}^ 1 dram; lard. 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied 
once every day until the part is blistered. 

Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, 
strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be con- 
sulted under their proper headings. 

After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous 
membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of 
the part may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic 
cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can 
neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. 

If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have dis- 
appeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dis- 
solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, 
three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the 
preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) 
about the throat, from ear to ear. and in the space between the lower 
jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until 
the part is blistered. 

SPASM OF THE LARYNX. 

The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of 
coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes re- 
cover and he as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this: 
Three drams of bromide of potassium three times a day. dissolved in 
the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water 
for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered mix vomica (either on 
the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few 
weeks. 



DISEASES OF THE THROAT. 117 



CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. 

Neither of these diseases affects the horse. But these names are 
sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to 
forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes exces- 
sively inflamed and gangrenous. 

THICK WIND AND ROARING. 

Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud 
unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be 
roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore 
throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack 
of the acute disease. 

Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the 
air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of 
the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the 
wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing 
of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due 
to an}^ disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable 
horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally 
caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced 
in order to hold him back. 

Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting, or per- 
manent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis 
of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles 
of the left side of the larynx that are affected. 

In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the 
lungs ; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced 
when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during 
inspiration. 

In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx 
by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient 
volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed 
the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the 
affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air 
rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When 
the air is expelled from the hings its very force pushes the cartilage 
and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the 
expiratory act. 

The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve 
that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not 
supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each 
supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the 
left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in 



118 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much 
longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. 

In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx 
other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The 
disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Dis- 
ease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course 
may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic- 
glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way 
back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous sup- 
ply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed, 
medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the 
wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interrup- 
tion of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the 
condition may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, if 
caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used 
with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of 
course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the 
nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (mix vomica) on the 
ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the af- 
fected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without con- 
sidering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extir- 
pating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the 
only relief, and. as this operation is critical and can only be per- 
formed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. 

From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that 
the name " roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only 
a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many 
cases accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse 
is a " roarer " is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or 
over a sandy road or soft ground ; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop 
him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert 
himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others 
before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance 
he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in 
bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is 
rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the 
animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. 

An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding pur- 
poses. The taint is transmissible in many instances. 

Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining 
" the wind " of a horse is to see if he is a " grunter." This is a sound 
emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or 
startled, or struck at. Tf he grunts he is further tested for roaring. 
Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a 
roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion 



CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 119 

until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. 
The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, 
pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with 
much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, 
but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of 
" grunter " being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when 
the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. 

High blowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by 
some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- 
founded with " roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the 
nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, 
when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani- 
mal that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses 
have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit 
sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. 

Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a 
horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except 
to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during 
a"n attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which 
passes away with the disease that causes it. 

CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 

This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may 
follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to 
be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This 
chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of 
the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not 
accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is 
exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of 
exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and 
appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, 
flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. 
It is accompanied by a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, 
smothered, or muffled, while in other cases it is hard and clear. A 
whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in 
some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the 
shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be 
heard within. 

Treatment. — Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable 
circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand 
exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. The animal 
should have much the same general care and medical treatment pre- 
scribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7 
grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must 
be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given 



120 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution. 1 
ounce three times daily in the drinking water. An application of 
mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should 
be the most nourishing. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, 
scalded, oats. and. if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the 
best diet. 

Tin: lungs. 

The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of 
two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the tk 1 i<_^l it ^." , 
situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the 
space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, 
they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung 
consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue. 
which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a 
certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless 
lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every 
one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute 
branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the 
lung-. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from 
one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch: they have but one 
opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial 
tubes. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The 
air cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming 
the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the 
rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes 
place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin; so. also, 
are the walls of the blood vessels. Through these walls escapes from 
the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood 
in its circulation through the different parts of the body: and through 
these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air cells, the 
oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere. 

CONGESTION OK THE LUNGS. 

Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the 
parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists 
as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when 
the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate 
exercise. Very often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs 
is but a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart. 

The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting 
horses will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condi- 
tion" to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking 
exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther 
each day: the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is 



CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 121 

said to be *' in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of 
being affected with congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy. 
On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose 
of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system 
becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe 
exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in 
other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may 
start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is 
pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag- 
ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the 
Hanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suf- 
focation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden 
and severe strain put upon them ; the heart became unable to perform 
its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which 
eventually became engrossed with the stagnated blood, constituting 
congestion of the lungs. 

The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not 
exhibit alarming symptoms until returned to the stable ; then he will 
be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes 
wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and 
almost gasping; the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, 
which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body 
and the legs and ears cold ; the breathing is both abdominal and tho- 
racic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought 
into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating 
very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart may be 
felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest 
behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal 
may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side 
of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine crackling 
sound. " 

One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs 
when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates 
the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are 
congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. 

Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the 
road, stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. 
If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlim- 
ited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air 
is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. 
Let him stand still; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure 
air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle, 
remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hay or 
straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in 
relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated 



122 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the body 
and legs well until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are 
warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put band- 
ages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blan- 
ket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. 
Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated — brandy, whisky 
(or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic 
spirits of ammonia. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and 
alcohol, given as a drench diluted with a pint of water, every hour 
until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter 
of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quan- 
tity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce <>l* 
tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses 
have been given. If none of these remedies is at hand, 2 ounces of 
oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once, 
but not repeated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein. 
Do not take more than 5 or G quarts from the vein, and do not repeat 
the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. 

When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may 
be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- 
mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may 
be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable 
stall, where he will not be subjected to drafts or sudden changes of 
temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. 
The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always 
in the stall, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded 
oats, and, if in season, grass. When ready for use again the horse 
should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily 
increased until he may safely be put to regular work. 

PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 

Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of 
pneumonia are catarrhal — already discussed in connection with bron- 
chitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia — and the fibrinous or 
croupous variety. The latter form receives its name from the fact 
that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from 
the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become 
as firm as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As 
air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will 
not float in water. 

The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and 
extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of conges- 
tion, or engorgement, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of 
serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages. 



PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 123 

The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches 
of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated. 

The pleura covering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed. 
A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked by a further 
escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane 
of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air 
cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and 
softening when healing commences. 

The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a 
restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded 
material contained in the air cells and lung tissues becoming broken 
down and softened and absorbed or expectorated through the nostrils. 
The blood vessels return to their natural state, and the blood circu- 
lates in them as before. In the cases that do not terminate so hap- 
pily the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), or an abscess 
may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. 

Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named 
as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in 
many instances it is due to neglect. A common cold or sore throat 
may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. 
An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened 
state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength ; or 
he may be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, 
where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out ; or the 
stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of 
cold air. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated 
by any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if 
exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, 
accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as 
the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal 
attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia 
is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, 
purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and 
pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especiallv 
during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterly winds. 
Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may cause pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by 
a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither 
by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing 
becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very 
dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the 
touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a 
fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature 
will be found to have risen to 103° F. or higher. The pulse is fre- 
quent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There 



124 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes 
in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become 
moist, or if pleurisy sets in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter 
affection: that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some 
cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with Mood, while in 
other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost 
to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, par- 
ticularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the 
nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The 
legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what 
dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is 
passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. 

The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be 
obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, 
but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However, 
if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy, the horse may appear rest- 
less and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic 
pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is rapid and 
difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the 
ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal; that 
is, the abdominal muscles are now T made to do as much of the work as 
they can perform. If pleurisy is not present there is little pain. 
To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear dangerously 
ill. as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as 
in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the 
trouble is something more serious than a cold. By percussion it will 
be shown that some portions of the chest are less resonant than in 
health, indicating exclusion of air. If the air is wholly excluded the 
percussion is quite dull, as that elicited by percussion over the thigh. 

By auscultation important information may be gained. "When the 
ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the respiratory 
murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the 
chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia 
this murmur is louder and hoarser; and, also, there is heard a fine 
crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is 
thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an 
absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins 
one may again hear sounds that are of a more or less moist character 
and resemble a bubbling or gurgling noise, which gradually change 
until the natural sound is heard announcing return to health. 

When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become 
intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the 
flanks heave: the animal stares wildly about as if seeking aid to drive 
off the feeling of suffocation : the body is bathed with sweat : the horse 
staggers, but quickly recovers his balance; he may now, for the first 



PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 125 

time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, however, in the hope of 
relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet ; 
he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side 
and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing 
position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as 
after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down; the limbs stretch 
out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from 
ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other 
hand, when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are ob- 
vious. The fever abates and the animal gradually improves in appe- 
tite ; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve ; 
he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down 
and rests. In the majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated, 
terminates in recovery. 

Treatment. — The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be 
attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be pro- 
vided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall 
where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of 
temperature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and 
pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal com- 
fortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shut- 
ting off the ventilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply 
of fresh cold drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub 
the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the 
hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished 
in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply dry ground mustard and rub 
well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, 
the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often 
done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering com- 
pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not 
be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to 
the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If 
the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable 
stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water 
handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then 
quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around 
the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin; do not allow it to sag 
down so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry 
blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths. 
The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is 
off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet 
part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be 
kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be 
quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol rubbed 
over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal. 



126 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three 
or lour consecutive days. Unless every facility and circumstance 
favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner, do not attempt 
it. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are omitted, more 
harm than good may result. Mustard may be applied by making a 
paste with a pound of freshly ground mustard mixed with warm 
water. This is to be spread evenly over the sides hack of the shoulder 
blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be 
taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immediately 
hack of the elbow. The mustard -covered area should be covered with 
a paper and this with a blanket passed up from below and fastened 
over the back. The blanket and paper should be removed in from 
one to two hours. When pneumonia follows another disease, the sys- 
tem is always more or less debilitated and requires the careful tise of 
stimulants from the beginning. To still further weaken the animal 
by bleeding him is one of the most effectual methods of retarding 
recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. 

Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the nonprofes- 
sional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is 
one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone 
who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only 
less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common 
opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimu- 
lant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the reverse. 
It is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medi- 
cine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in 
breathing ; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used. 
Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it 
by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and lin- 
seed mashes, and, if in season, grass. If the costiveness is not relieved 
by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water 
three or four times a day. 

A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, 
when in season, glass or corn fodder is preferable if the animal 
retains an appetite; but if no desire is evinced for food of this par- 
ticular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything 
that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling 
water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until 
cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for 
food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he 
desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is 
refused. Bread may be tried; also apples or carrots. If the animal 
can he persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. 
Three or 4 gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in 
which may be stirred 3 or 4 fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some 



PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 127 

horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It 
should be borne in mind that all food must be taken by the horse as 
he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal 
will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for 
food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, 
but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; 
the very fact of it constantly being before him will cause him to 
loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything the 
stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured 
or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate 
the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing 
to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. 
Nothing is well done that is overdone. 

There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages 
and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer 
it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use 
of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to 
recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only 
confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at 
hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a 
capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, 
given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good 
in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in 
the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to 
drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis 
in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia 
1 grain, made into a pill with liquorice powder, three times daily. 

If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more 
pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful . 
Rectified spirits, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; water, 1 
pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to 
benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water 
may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. 

During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be 
allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substi- 
tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised 
for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this 
case, especially the iodide of potash. Likewise, the same general 
instructions apply here. 

The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from 
exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of 
lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater 
the danger, hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of 
one lung. 



128 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

THE WINDPIPE. 

The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible 
tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, 
to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by 
dividing into the right and left bronchi — the tubes going to the right 
and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty 
incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer 
is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube 
is lined wit 1 ! a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the 
entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in 
contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite 
sensitiveness. 

The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or 
less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, 
etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left 
in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the 
rings may be accidently fractured, or the tube may be distorted or 
malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of 
tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as 
a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section 
attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no partic- 
ular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated 
that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one 
of the causes of noisy respiration described as " thick wind." 

GUTTURAL POUCHES. 

These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate 
with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of 
the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air. 
Their function is unknown. 

One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are 
as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent 
discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the 
head is depressed. 

The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from 
the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these 
pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this small open- 
ing matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is 
turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent 
position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. 
In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If 
this treatment fails, an operation must be performed, which should 
not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the 
part. 



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DISEASES OP THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 129 

BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this 
inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest 
branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. 
Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the 
smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. 
The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the 
respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The 
special causes are these : The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke 
and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- 
sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also 
supervenes on common cold or sore throat. 

Symptoms. — The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or 
wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, 
at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a " barking 
cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough ; the 
mouth is hot ; the visible membranes in the nose are red ; the pulse 
is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as 
the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a 
discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes 
creamy or frothy, and still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, 
and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscul- 
tation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds 
can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes 
a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, 
cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After 
one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist 
state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, 
caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the 
fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mu- 
cous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in 
great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- 
lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is 
expectorated ; that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is 
coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swal- 
lowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not 
spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access 
to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggra- 
vated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates 
that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catar- 
rhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall 
much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the 
idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleu- 
risy, the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do 
H. Doc. 7!)f>, 50-2 9 



130 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the 
abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the 
attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain 
all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly 
about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated; 
the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in 
quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or 
less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge 
from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and in- 
flammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one 
stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough 
becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it grad- 
ually disappears with the return of health. 

Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal 
diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must 
be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a 
nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it 
may as well be said here that the nonexpert will have difficulty in 
discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia. 

Treatment. — The matter of first importance is to insure a pure at- 
mosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as com- 
fortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all 
purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the 
season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, 
then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from 
the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm 
with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and 
then put on the bandages. Also rub mustard paste well over the side 
of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the 
shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the 
median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the 
backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three 
days after the first one is applied. 

Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling- 
water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of 
camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam 
should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done 
the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day admin- 
ister an electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with lico- 
rice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold 
water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and 
has no appetite, give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 
ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose 
every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is 
hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 



PLEURISY. 131 

3 drams ; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into 
a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a 
ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giv- 
ing the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, 
as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may 
prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give 
enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not 
bleed the animal. 

If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as 
scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses 
cooked food, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, 
cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may all be tried in turn. 
Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of 
food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld 
for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will 
support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established re- 
covery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time 
may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required. 

TVhen the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the dis- 
ease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all 
other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treat- 
ment pursued. Give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; 
powdered gentian, 8 ounces ; mix well together and divide into sixteen 
powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran 
and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flax- 
seed tea and administered as a drench. 

If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 
dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking 
water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. 
Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample 
time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and 
may run into an incurable case of thick wind. 

PLEURISY. 

The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each 
containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa- 
rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin glisten- 
ing membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the in- 
ternal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary ob- 
server appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all 
practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as 
the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In 
health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the 
pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to 
prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the 



132 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

chest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be 
remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken 
in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be 
readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface 
of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the conse- 
quent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious 
friction. 

Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely 
united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the 
disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same 
predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of 
this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, 
such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in 
damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the 
chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily 
pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The 
inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, 
confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread 
from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The 
pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane 
is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with 
bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that 
interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent 
cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent dis- 
eased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia. Pleurisy 
will be described here as an independent affection, although it should 
be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing 
diseases. 

The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that 
ramify in this membrane, and dryness of the surface. This is fol- 
lowed by the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the 
diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the 
chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw 
colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this 
accumulation may amount to several gallons. 

Symptoms. — When the disease exists as an independent affection it 
is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the 
first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn 
round. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He 
stands stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the 
act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural, both the 
fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the 
attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; 
he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he 
finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of 



PLEURISY. 133 

restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain, 
therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and suppressed, and comes 
as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to sup- 
press it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature 
being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual symptoms 
that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty dark- 
colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps TO or more a 
minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. 

Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion 
occurs, the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the 
chest is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of 
greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. 
The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another 
method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between 
the ribs, each space in succession beginning behind the elbow, until 
you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at 
any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when 
the surfaces are dry and rough, one may hear a friction sound very 
much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper 
together. The sound appears immediately under the ear and is dis- 
tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, 
as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. 
In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by 
placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is suc- 
ceeded by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. 
After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is 
heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate 
from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the 
collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. 

Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing 
to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The 
fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably 
within a week or ten days. 

If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the 
process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales- 
cence is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, 
the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, 
the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses 
much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a 
time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the 
legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy 
of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves 
fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema. 

Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect 
both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. 



134 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — The instructions in regard to the general management 
of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of 
pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body 
and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water,. the 
laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. 
The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment 
of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up 
while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. 

During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, 
apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when 
the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mus- 
tard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the 
beginning the following drench may be given every six hours, if the 
horse takes a drench kindly : Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 
ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 
3 drams; water, 1 pint. 

If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for 
pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The 
same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will par- 
take of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best ; but 
if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different 
kinds of food and allowed whichever kind he desires. 

In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the 
animal to lie down or paw, morphine may be given by the mouth in 
5-grain doses, or the fluid extract of Cannabis indica may be used in 
doses of 2 to 4 drams. 

If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after 
the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in 
the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak 
and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes 
still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite 
the absorption of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild 
blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the 
bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times 
a day, for seven or eight days, if it is necessary and appears to bene- 
fit : Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 
2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium, 
dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night 
and morning for a week or two. 

Eydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use 
of medicines alone, when the operation is performed of tapping the 
chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is 
performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. 
The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space 
between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 135 

artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to 
the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only 
so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. 
The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not pre- 
sumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although it is attended 
with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the expert. 

There have been described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy 
mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem- 
bered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one 
time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard 
to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard 
to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan 
adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the 
wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of 
which the reader is supposed to know very little. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and 
pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the 
beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but 
the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is 
closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently 
more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the 
lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, 
but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most 
obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner 
from that given for the affections when they occur independently. 
The symptoms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil 
and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not 
resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain. 

BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 

This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and 
pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an 
expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms 
are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro-pneumonia. 

SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. 

There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the 
patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, 
when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, 
when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large por- 
tion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ven- 
tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The 



136 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidi- 
fied area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offen- 
sive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the 
nostrils. 

MORTIFICATION. 

Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected. 
Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat- 
ment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, 
which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most 
common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body 
in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or 
drenching through the nostrils may cause this serious condition. 

HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. 

Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion 
of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, 
or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. 
Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following 
the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and 
cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial 
tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemor- 
rhage is from the lung it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is 
frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas 
when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some 
part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the 
blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge 
is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against 
the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a 
gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connec- 
tion with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When 
caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. 
If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram 
of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a 
drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted 
with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare 
that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. 
But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffo- 
cation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of 
blood from the nose. 

CONSUMPTION. 

Pulmonary consumption, or tuberculosis, has been recognized in 
the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic 
pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease. 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 137 

HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA. 

Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature 
of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments 
where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are 
well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but 
there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. 
Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular 
muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence 
of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the 
forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves. 

Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of diges- 
tion or to an error in the choice of food. Feeding on clover hay or 
damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions food, and keeping 
the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce 
or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level 
are predisposed. 

In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally 
caused by an affection closely connected with it, After death, if the 
organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length 
of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very 
few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- 
winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are 
paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the vol- 
ume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small 
bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. 
The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The 
stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change 
found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary em- 
physema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular 
emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the 
air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form 
is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the 
first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue be- 
tween the air cells or the tissue between the small lobules. 

Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect 
heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out 
the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not 
always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain 
extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. 
It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a 
grunt. When air is inspired — that is, taken in — it appears to be done 
in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little 
quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when 
the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is per- 



138 DISEASES OE THE HORSE. 

formed that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must 
be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and, 
in consequence, of their power of contracting on account of the de- 
generation of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the 
paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into 
them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the 
lungs; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These 
muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, 
then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus 
making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of 
jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement 
may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face 
or back of the hand. It will be observed that the expiratory current 
is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. "When the animal is 
exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise 
may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be 
applied to the chest. 

As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. 
The animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat 
dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the 
clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be 
overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that 
form called " potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a 
very offensive odor. When first put to work dung is passed fre- 
quently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much 
work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said 
to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long 
standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. 

Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse 
affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. 
They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier 
when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the 
use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterina- 
rian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the 
animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as 
he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or 
on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing 
of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms 
of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the 
cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable 
time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in 
paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the 
cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. 
The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. 

Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it. 
Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symp- 



DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 139 

toms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their 
intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is al- 
lowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky food which contains 
but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, 
and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is aifected, 
as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown 
where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food 
of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of 
moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be over- 
estimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. 
This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariably be 
watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal 
should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the 
stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on 
pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and 
mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of 
thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. 

Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best ad- 
ministered in the form of the solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solu- 
tion or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the 
dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily. Of the 
latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be 
cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. 
If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be 
given once or twice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may 
be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must, 
however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary 
consideration ; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor- 
tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding pur- 
poses. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. 

CHRONIC COUGH. 

A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory 
organs, - such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accom- 
panies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may 
succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom 
and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated 
with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It 
may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such 
cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treat- 
ment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the 
disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible, 
and the cough will cease. 

The treatment of the affections will be found under their appro- 
priate heads, to which the reader is referred. 



140 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

PLEURO-DYNIA. 

This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; 
that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are 
very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not in- 
clined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as 
possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side 
struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed 
with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or 
groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy 
by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into 
the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The 
treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting 
other parts. 

WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. 

A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the tho- 
racic cavity outside of the lung. This condition is known as pneumo- 
thorax and may result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so 
made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is 
sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air 
presses against the torn part in such a manner as entirely to close 
the wound : thus a small quantity of air gains access with each in- 
spiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into 
a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. 
The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in 
the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there 
may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases 
the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result. But 
when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be 
removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator. 

It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the tho- 
racic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained 
whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be 
thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid. 1 part in water 40 
parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an 
incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plas- 
ters if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage 
around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be pre- 
vented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as pos- 
sible. The after treatment of the wound should principally consist in 
keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying 
fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy 
condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound 



THUMPS. 141 

have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their 
treatment, p. 459.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as 
advised under that head. 

THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

u Thumps " is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a pal- 
pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart 
is sometimes called " thumps," it must not be confounded with the 
affection under consideration. 

In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of 
respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and 
essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions 
of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. 
Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although the 
peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. 

There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from 
palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, 
and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed 
on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand 
is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- 
strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking 
of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the 
animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the 
heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. 
Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce conges- 
tion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may 
occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death 
usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breath- 
ing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important 
muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can 
not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion 
of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of 
sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida. 

RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes 
reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, 
from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which dis- 
tend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great 
pressure against it. The symptoms are intensely difficult respiration 
and great depression. There is no treatment. 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 

By James Law. F. R. C. V. S.. 
Professor of Veterinary science, etc.. in Cornell University. 

[Revised in 1003 by the author.] 
CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES. OB ORCHITIS. 

In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food, 
stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become 
swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A 
reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or •! ounces 
of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected 
organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them 
to a healthy condition. 

When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent, 
when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, 
when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and 
when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative 
instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual 
inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and pen- 
etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by 
a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on 
the gland under rapid paces or heavy draft, compression of the blood 
vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir- 
cumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease 
of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative 
functions, like rue. savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana. may also 
be accessor}' causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain 
specific diseases like maladie du coit, glanders, and tuberculosis, local- 
ized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. 

Symptoms. — Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms 
of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, strad- 
dling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and 
dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching 
of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, 
with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse 
and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty 
urine limy be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and 
envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, 
pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the 
convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to 
142 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 143 

suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent 
attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third 
day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of 
matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with 
gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete 
recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form 
with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence 
of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation 
from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the 
scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be 
made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the 
abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the 
cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sac and cavity of the abdo- 
men and pyemia may follow. 

Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration 
of a purgative (1 to H pounds Glaubers salts), and the local appli- 
cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of 
belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, 
kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This band- 
age, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and 
tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same sur- 
cingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the 
thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to re- 
lieve vascular tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may 
be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence 
of fluctuation the knife may be employed to give free escape to the 
pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak car- 
bolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may 
be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal 
by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to 
the resulting cavity. 

SARCOCELE. 

This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting 
from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a 
specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural struc- 
ture of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small round 
cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very 
improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very 
slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and com- 
paratively insensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may 
be edematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and 
spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the symptoms are 
masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, 
dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected 
side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the 



144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, 
a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the dis- 
ease with hernia. • 

The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even 
this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuber- 
culosis). 

HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. 

This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, 
the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. 
It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, sper- 
matic cord, or walls of the sac. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and 
fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating 
in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with 
a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the 
scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure. 

Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has 
resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applica- 
tions (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the 
liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn 
off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first 
passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the 
sacs. 

VARICOCELE. 

This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic 
cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the tes- 
ticle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as 
in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to. 

ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. 

Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, 
however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the 
inguinal canal or abdomen (crypt orchid). In rare cases there may 
lie a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double mon- 
ster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second fetus have like- 
wise been found in the testicle or scrotum. 

DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. 

The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- 
laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate 
treatment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glan- 
ders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope 
of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with 
cystic tapeworms or larval stages of the armed roundworm 
(Sti'ongylus equinus) . 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 145 

WARTS OX THE PENIS. 

These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and 
forefinger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with 
scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. 

DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA, OR EPITHELIOMA). 

The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths 
on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, 
obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The 
only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the 
penis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which 
should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting 
through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or 
tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half 
an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. 

EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. 

As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on 
the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may 
become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood 
vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or 
more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery 
a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages 
may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to 
limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should 
be suspended in a sling. 

PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. 

This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases 
from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the 
sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine 
occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In 
cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by 
astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should 
be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of mix vomica 
are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricity sent 
through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of 
the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daiiy, 
may prove successful. 

SELF-ABUSE, OK MASTURBATION. 

Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual 
instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the 
belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical 
II. Doc. 705, 50-2 10 



146 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent 
the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the 
animal to desist through pain. 

MALADIE DU COIT, OR DOURINE. 

This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and 
affects stallions and mares. It has long been known in northern 
Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into 
Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. 

From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be 
after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of 
the external organs of generation, sometimes followed by the erup- 
tion of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the 
vulva, clitoris, and the vagina, and the consequent rupture of these 
vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles 
have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. 
In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and 
the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, 
yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The 
swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting 
one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the 
opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu- 
lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive 
patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red, 
swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness 
and paralysis of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection. 
The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male, and thus propagate 
the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stu- 
pidity and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve 
few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but 
with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may 
be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted ; the testicles are usually pendent 
and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby ; the skin, as in the mare, 
shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes partially 
paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent 
Lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and of the 
skin appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In 
some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows 
from the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin 
leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and 
stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire 
docs not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat. except when 
food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. 
In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such 
animals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into 



CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 147 

activity and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased 
nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer.) 

Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory. It 
belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out 
by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that 
has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. 

CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 

This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a 
few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the 
fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in 
the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a 
better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential 
part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle 
and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery 
found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of 
accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the 
method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be 
noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the 
right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, 
penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of 
sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end 
of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now 
seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, 
and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from 
before backward, about three- fourths of an inch from and parallel to 
the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle 
and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. 
At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the 
cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by 
the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards 
through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, 
when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted 
through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the 
latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. 
The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency 
to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang 
loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached 
portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be 
made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces 
opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications — 
(a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (b) providing for 
the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram 
of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and 



148 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the 
clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press 
out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and 
the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- 
twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the 
clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, 
and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours; then, by cut- 
ting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened 
and the stump liberated without any danger of bleeding. Should the 
stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger 
and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter 
on the second day in hot weather or the third in cold, and from that 
time a good recovery may be expected. 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. 

The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very 
rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- 
tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, 
influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, 
purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that 
have been kept in close, ill ventilated, filthy buildings, where the 
system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other 
products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time 
should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of 
a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. 

CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS ( RIDOLINGS) . 

This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to 
descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal 
canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate 
anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and 
manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional 
mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and 
removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural chan- 
nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal 
ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that 
channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the 
inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is 
used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic 
with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part, water "2,000 parts (a car- 
bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best 
torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable 
to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor 
healing of the wound by adhesion. 



CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 149 

PAIN AFTER CASTRATION. 

Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after cas- 
tration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. 
This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when 
he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some 
time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an 
adult) may be given. 

BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. 

Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery 
in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in 
warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, 
however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold 
water against the part. 

Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord 
may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent 
it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and 
the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. 
If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of 
muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation 
of clot and the closure of the artery. 

STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. 

If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the 
wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- 
venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing 
swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the 
wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, 
and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks 
stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and 
high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure 
of the skin wound and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the 
cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If 
there is no material swelling and little protrusion, the wound may be 
enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from 
any connection with the skin and pushed up inside. If the swelling 
is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See 
below.) 

SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. 

This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy 
seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and 
penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the 
result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing sceptic 



150 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound., and 
imprisonment of matter. 

Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. 
Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to 
be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, 
any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic 
liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the 
swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at 
intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and anti- 
septics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water 
may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage 
the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not 
be allowed to close again at once. A free, creamlike discharge im- 
plies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. 

PHYMOSIS AND PARAPH YMOSIS. 

In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within 
the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be 
retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- 
cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- 
liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, 
and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or 
simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated 
fluid, will enable the operator to return it. 

TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. 

These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in 
castration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external 
wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation 
of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence 
of infection (Staphylococcus botriomyces) . These tumors give rise 
to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin 
connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly 
for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and 
contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from 
the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner 
us the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and 
surrounding parts generally, they must be carefully dissected from 
the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord 
finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become 
swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impos- 
sible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted 
by passing white-hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring 
in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. 



CASTRATION OF THE MARE. 151 

CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. 

This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or 
omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of 
the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and 
inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become 
adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- 
trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- 
tion for hernia in geldings, see remarks on hernia. 

CASTRATION OF THE MARE. 

Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in 
the females of other domesticated quadrupeds and should never be 
resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur- 
rence of heat and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to 
breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in 
Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro- 
portion of the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina 
the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflam- 
mation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be 
fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed 
under the body, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform. 
The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and 
skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the 
roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following 
with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side 
is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted off. 
It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the 
purpose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked 
by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protrusion of the bowels 
may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversion 
of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal con- 
tents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and 
high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found 
it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. 
Another important point is to give' bran mashes and other laxative 
diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload 
the rectum by copious injections of warm water in case it should 
threaten to become impacted. 

STERILITY. 

Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stal- 
lion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to the mare, 
she alone fails to conceive. 



152 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) 
Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are 
retained within the abdomen; (6) inflammation of the testicles, re- 
sulting in induration; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stal- 
lions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised; (<7) 
fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (vasa dt f< - 
rentia) ; (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflam- 
mation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; 
(g) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (h) 
warty growths on the end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds 
(largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or penis; (/') nervous 
diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles 
which are essential to the act of coition; (Z) azoturia with resulting 
weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the 
thigh (above the stifle) ; (/) ossification (anchylosis) of the joints 
of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to rear, or mount ; 
(m) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs, 
the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop 
short in the act. In the first three of these only (a, b. and c) is there 
real sterility in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect devel- 
opment of the male vivifying element (spermatozoa). In the other 
examples the secretion may be perfect in kind and amount, but as 
copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum. 

In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a 
number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied 
from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect develop- 
ment of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (b) cystic or other 
tumors of the ovary; (<?) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very 
obese, pampered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory 
tulx's of the ovaries (Fallopian tubes); (e) catarrh of the womb, 
with mucopurulent discharge; (/) irritable condition of the womb, 
with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; (</) 
nervous irritability, leading to the same expulsion of the male ele- 
ment; (//) high condition (plethora), with profuse secretion and 
excitement; (/) low condition, with imperfect maturation of the ova 
and lack of sexual desire; (j) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic 
debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; {/»■) 
closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm or perma- 
nently by inflammation and induration; (/) closure of the entrance 
to the vagina through imperforate hymen, a rare, though not un- 
known, condition in the mare: (//>) acquired indisposition to breed, 
-cen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the stallion 
when aged: (//) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by 
barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually 
entails sterility. 



STERILITY. 153 

Treatment. — The treatment of the majority of these conditions 
will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only- 
necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be 
specially referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended 
testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated 
and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be 
remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment 
daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the 
system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration 
is best met by an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, 
rape cake) and constant well-regulated work. Saccharine, starchy, 
and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially 
avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovary should be 
removed, to do away with the resulting excitability of the remainder 
of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent strain- 
ing and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be cor- 
rected by a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even 
fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of 
the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The 
perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the 
abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the 
blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and else- 
where, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss 
of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2 
drams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia 
demand just the opposite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albumi- 
noid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal 
grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order. 

Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is 
easily remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The 
hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn 
into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until 
the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. 
This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time, until 
the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the 
open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, 
rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, 
laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the 
retention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the 
Avomb is rigid and unyielding from the induration which follows in- 
flammation — a rare condition in the mare, though common in the 
cow — more force will be requisite, and it may even be needful to in- 
cise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more 
opposite directions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be 
made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a profes- 



154 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

eional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be West effected 
by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the 
narrow canal. In such eases it is best to let the wounds of the neck 
heal before putting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely 
incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human 
hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after 
the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the 
wounds have healed. 

INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. 

As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg- 
nancy, it is important that the result should be determined, to save 
the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when 
actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when 
she is not. 

The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) 
are most significant though not an infallible sign of conception. If 
the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently 
refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very 
exceptional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after 
weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the 
horse persistently, though conception has not taken place, and this in 
spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feed- 
ing. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to 
take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of 
time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather 
and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi- 
cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may 
be usually accepted as proof of conception. 

An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously 
irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent 
indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the 
excitement having been satisfied. 

An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of 
energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, 
indeed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by 
service, will usually imply conception. 

Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with 
slight, falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are sig- 
nificant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and 
firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a 
suggestive sign, even though it appears only at intervals during ges- 
tation. 

A steady increase in weight (H pounds daily) about the fourth or 
fifth month is a useful indication of pregnancy. So is n swollen and 
red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane. 



PREGNANCY. 155 

From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by 
the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the 
left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite 
side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike 
against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of 
the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink 
of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often 
stimulate the fetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but 
an excess of iced water may prove injurious, even to the causing of 
abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the 
fetus and equally endangers abortion. 

Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the 
rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more 
dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- 
ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, 
and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. 
In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- 
gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of 
the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is 
enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on 
compression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, float- 
ing in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated 
by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this 
method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the 
third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can 
not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the 
right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. 
Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an in- 
clined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing 
on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the 
abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope 
applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect 
the beating of the fetal heart (one hundred and twenty-five per 
minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid 
and corresponding to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is 
heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the 
absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam. 

DURATION OF PREGNANCY. 

Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first 
pregnancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the 
three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth 
day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of 
male offspring. 



156 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARK. 

The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young 
and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, par- 
ticularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is bene- 
ficial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate 
work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take 
exercise at will. 

The food should be liberal, but not fattening — oats. bran, sound 
hay, and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone 
being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are 
to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing 
grasses and other green food, partially ripe rye grass, millet, hun- 
garian grass, vetches, pease, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is 
overripe, fibrous, innutritions hay. or that which has been injured and 
rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot. 
Food that tends to costiveness should be avoided. "Water given often, 
and at a temperature considerably above freezing, will avoid the 
dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too 
much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objec- 
tionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines 
that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided 
as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, 
if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, 
and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other 
equally bland agent. 

The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow, so as to 
cramp her when lying down or to entail violent effort, in getting up, 
and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this 
throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- 
trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be 
avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, 
yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities 
and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom 
shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and 
those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too. the 
importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant 
mare, as certain troubles of the eyes. feet, and joints in the foals have 
been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor- 
responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to 
reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but 
(he dam is far more likely to perpetuate the evil in he) 1 progeny which 
was carried while she was individually enduring severe suffering 
caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone, 



PREGNANCY. 157 

causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the in- 
flammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia 
is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all 
active diseases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated at 
as early a moment as possible. 

EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION . 

It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed else- 
where than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which 
the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallo- 
pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which 
the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually in- 
creasing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. 
The arrest of the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself 
(ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or 
when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so 
that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached 
to any part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment di- 
dectly from that (abdominal pregnancy). In all such cases there is 
an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the 
point to which the embryo has attached itself so as to furnish the 
needful nutriment for the growing offspring. 

All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of the 
fetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and 
indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the 
natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There 
may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, acceler- 
ated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with 
the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural 
unimpregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Fur- 
ther exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, and 
in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of 
the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move, 
the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried 
for years, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the 
bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the 
abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In 
the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and 
to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part 
to water 50 parts. This may be repeated daily. Where there is no 
spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from 
the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation 
in the enormous fetal sac when that has been opened to the air. 



158 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 

MOLES, OR ANIDIAX MONSTERS. 

These are evidently products of conception, in which the impreg- 
nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha- 
otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner 
surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv- 
eled and wasted. They are usually accompanied by a well-developed 
fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under- 
gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the 
ordinary process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the 
normally developed offspring. 

CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICULAR MOLE. 

This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of 
the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly 
increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts, 
or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they 
appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather 
than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, 
which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with ano- 
dynes and secured a recovery. Where this is not available attempts 
may be made to remove the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, fol- 
lowing this up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last 
heading. 

DROPSY OF THE WOMB. 

This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb. 
Out has been frequently observed as the result of infection after sex- 
ual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy. 
The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of 
the fetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb 
when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of 
four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent 
straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear 
and watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into 
the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck 
of the womb closes, the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even 
a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency. 
The best resort is to remove any diseased product that may be found 
attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it daily with a warm 
solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram, 
water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics (gentian 2 drams, sulphate 
of iron 2 drams, daily) shoulud be given, and a nutritious, easily 
digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed. 



DISEASES OF THE WOMB. 159 

DROPSY OF THE AMNION. 

This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid col- 
lects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) 
and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection 
can occur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb 
occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare con- 
tains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red 
globules, and when this is still further aggravated by poor feeding 
and other unhygienic conditions there is developed the tendency to 
liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery con- 
dition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of 
the amnion is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation. 
The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates 
under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus c^n still be felt to 
strike against the hand pressed into the swelling. If the hand is 
introduced into the vagina, the womb is found to be tense and round, 
with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the 
rectum will detect the rounded swollen mass of the womb so firm and 
tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare 
moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in sup- 
porting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appe- 
tite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and 
colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, labo- 
rious parturition may occur at the usual time. 

Treatment consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by 
puncturing the fetal membrane with a canula and trocar introduced 
through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trocar so 
as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured 
with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may 
bring on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to 
the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of 
iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract 
further excessive effusion. 

DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN. 

The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even 
in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and be- 
neath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and 
pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or 
less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In ob- 
stinate cases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to: 
Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; 
water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after parturition. 



160 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. 

The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels 
of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps 
of the hind limits. The limb is raised without flexing the joints, the 
front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms 
occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the 
ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to he 
firm and rigid. The cramp may he promptly relieved by active rub- 
bing, or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after 
parturition. 

< OXSTIPATION. 

This may result from compression by the gravid womb, and is best 
corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed. 

PARALYSIS. 

The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis 
of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are 
obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or 
under a course of mix vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments. 

PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (FOAL). 

In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow. parturition 
may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried 
in the womb for a number of months, to the serious or even fatal 
injury of the mare. II anion records one case in which the mare died 
after carrying the fetus for seventeen months, and Caillier i similar 
result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases 
the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by (iohier, the 
bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent 
matter. 

Cans,. — The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of 
parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly 
strong (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal 
membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from 
fracture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the 
neck of the womb. 

The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the 
death of the foal: hence the latter has been born alive at the four 
hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does 
not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and 
septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In 
the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare 
usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. 

At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently 
made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the 
udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal 



ABORTION. 161 

strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not 
even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms 
subside. The mare usually refuses the male ; yet there are exceptions 
to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy- 
ing changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and 
condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative 
passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. 
In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and the 
mare finally dies of exhaustion. 

The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus 
and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with 
disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time 
should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come 
about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared 
with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and 
thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil- 
lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags 
may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see " Difficult 
parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the mem- 
branes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solu- 
tion of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. 

This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The 
same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the 
soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, 
these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily 
injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course 
of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly bene- 
ficial in restoring health and vigor. 

ABORTION. 

Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated 
ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can 
survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it 
is premature parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as 
the tenth month (three hundredth day). 

The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- 
foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of 
important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may 
induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck- 
less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a 
simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- 
tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence 
of stone in the kidneys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so 
much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In 
exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service 

H. Doc. 705, 59-2 11 



162 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

by the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo- 
men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she 
i? soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur 
or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are 
prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical oper- 
ation, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation 
are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls 
on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdom- 
inal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscar- 
riage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a 
warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative 
organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, 
ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and 
various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food, 
indigestible food, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a 
frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water 
is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in oppo- 
site w T ays caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of 
exercise strongly conduce to it, The exhaustion of the sire by too 
frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of 
the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. 

The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or 
late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare 
may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only 
appears by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot 
of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals 
the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in 
gestation, there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neigh- 
ing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, en- 
veloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of 
pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and 
the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that 
more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the 
comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling 
of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen 
droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, 
paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail. 
moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural 
foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the 
Ictus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for 
a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear 
with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will 
hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion 
may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of 
the placenta, and leucorrhea. 



ABORTION. 163 

The most important object in an impending abortion is to recog- 
nize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut 
short and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a preg- 
nant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards 
swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus 
secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the 
condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such 
indication, with colicky pains, staining, however little, and active 
movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive 
symptoms and should be duly counteracted. 

The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con- 
dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and 
the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth 
of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly 
filled with a bloody liquid. 

Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the 
avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may 
seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abor- 
tions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter 
of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., 
may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to 
avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, vio- 
lent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera- 
tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. 

When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a 
roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some 
sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 
1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, 
and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, 
may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a 
pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or 
Viburnum prunifolium, 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if neces- 
sary to prevent straining. 

When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be 
done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in 
ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may 
be necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the 
womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less 
requisite in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent con- 
tagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of 
antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially 
in the matter of pure air and easily digestible food. The mare should 
not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after 
all discharge from the vulva has ceased. 



164 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. 

As the period of parturition approaches, the swelling of the udder 
bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases 
extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into 
the hind limbs. For about a week a sej-ous fluid oozes from the teat 
and concretes as a yellow, waxlike mass around its orifice. About 
twenty-four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, 
milky liquid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides 
of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with red- 
ness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The 
belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become de- 
pressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anx- 
ious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many 
mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down; violent con- 
tractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains 
the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal, 
with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus 
is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The 
whole act may not occupy more than five or ten minutes. This, to- 
gether with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders 
the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. 

The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is 
ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises. 
if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes 
later. 

NATURAL PRESENTATION. 

When there is a single foal, the common and desirable presentation 
is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the 
front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward 
the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate X, fig. 1.) In this way the natural 
curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the 
womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and 
the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its 
back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the 
second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the 
legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned 
upward toward the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate X, fig. 2.) In 
this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the 
body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its 
expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any 
presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and 
will be considered under " Difficult parturition." 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 165 

DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 

With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great 
length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, 
the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the 
passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- 
lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and 
quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought 
on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- 
rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas- 
sages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from 
the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical 
or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is the 
normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are 
surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and 
skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of 
the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, penetrating wounds of 
the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the 
womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb 
the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the 
genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal mem- 
branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the 
violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole 
extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown 
on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturi- 
tion. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of partu- 
rient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal 
it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has 
been turned back when it should have been presented. When assist- 
ance must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen under- 
shirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body 
and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the 
arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against 
septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. 
The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn to- 
gether like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be 
turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possible. 
The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more 
room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented 
(head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before 
it is pushed back to search for the other missing parts. Even if a 
missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up 
during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the 
pains and allow the operator to secure and bring up the missing mem- 
ber. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in 



166 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal 
proportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the 
missing members may be replaced. If the waters have been dis- 
charged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and body of the 
I'd us should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at ex- 
traction is made. When the missing member has been brought up 
into position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on 
the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare is in- 
clined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the 
operator. 

PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. 

These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the 
saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, 
blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Ex- 
cessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that 
irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic 
salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally 
injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action 
of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various 
fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor 
pains prematurely. 

Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be 
less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- 
charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and 
probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand 
introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at 
full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but 
with its projecting papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet 
flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are in- 
deed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of 
gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the separation of the mare 
from all other animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free 
use of antispasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every 
two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often 
suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses 
may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until 
the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. 
Vibarnum pnmJfo/ium, in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. 
Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any 
necessary assistance furnished. 

DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS. 

A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the 
pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes 



PLATE IX. 




Haiiies.del after Fleming 



MS BIEN «.C0 I 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. 



PLATE X 




after Flei 

Verlebro Sacral presentation 







NOKMAI . PR ESENTATIO .\ S 






PLATE XII. 




!i-miii2 



Transverse presentation -ZJpper view. 




after Fleming 



Slrntn-fthtlomuuil fnese/ttntioTt -ffead a/id f*'rrt engaged,. 



Haines, after Fleming. 

A BNOIUI A L F R E S K N TAT IONS. 



JULIUS 8I£N & CO NY 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 167 

seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to 
birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated 
in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. 
If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy. 

FRACTURED HIP BONES. 

More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- 
ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. l 2.) 
Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are 
repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging 
into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the 
broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con- 
ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without 
embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back- 
bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part 
of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas- 
sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge 
forward. 

In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis 
the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to 
use her for work only. 

If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, 
abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly 
introducing the oiled linger through the neck of the womb ami fol- 
lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro- 
duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of 
the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains 
will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. 

ti \ioks in run vagina and pelvis. 

Tumors of various kinds may form in tin 1 vagina or elsewhere 
within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the 
passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- 
ment tumors {melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most 
likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina 
becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro- 
trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part 
of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not 
absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of 
the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the 
fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When 
a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, 
but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- 
tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. 



168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed 
by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu- 
ally tightened until that is torn through. 

HERNIA OF THE WOMB. 

The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape 
of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin 
hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- 
cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus 
can be felt through the Avails of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize 
the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may 
start from an umbilical hernia. "When the period of parturition 
arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper 
abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the 
aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This 
failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation 
brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even 
after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and 
abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the 
oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought 
into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed 
to secure delivery. 

TAVISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally 
seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of 
the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on 
its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward 
(quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and 
the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to 
throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn- 
ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck 
and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. 

The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin- 
ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear- 
ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb 
will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner 
surface. 

The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow 
may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her 
head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn 
toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, 
and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a 
limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed 
against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the 



DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169 

animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep 
the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends 
the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the 
spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward 
into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be 
repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my 
occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo- 
sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of 
the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory 
exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. 
The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- 
ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the 
mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- 
cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the 
equine subject. 

When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro- 
duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure 7, may be used. 
Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a 
stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or 
other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The 
cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru- 
ment ; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb 
may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. 
During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the 
twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces- 
sary, by rolling the mare as described above. 

EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAE WALLS. 

This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur 
from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. 
This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so 
characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous 
membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as 
ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the 
wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, 
carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, 
if necessary, during parturition. 

CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. 

The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may 
prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor 
pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced 
through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should 
be extracted with forceps. (See " Lithotomy.") The large papillary 



170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva- 
riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. 
Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed. 

IMPACTION OP THE RECTUM WITH FECES. 

In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail 
and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that 
the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by 
reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure 
upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The 
rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- 
dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or 
well-soaped hand. 

SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or 
under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, 
though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of 
the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or 
two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the 
womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening 
is left, with rigid margins. 

Treatment. — The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part 
with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the 
hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur- 
ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac- 
tion, as advised under " Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another 
mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc 
bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry 
the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert 
a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm 
water. 

FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB. 

These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times 
observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen 
and coin] tress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they nay extend 
from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the 
womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied 
by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by 
incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry- 
otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision 
into the abdomen and extract by the Cesarean operation, or simply to 
cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by f he usual channel. 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 171 

FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OP VAGINA OR VULVA. 

This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and 
the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re- 
mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre- 
sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc- 
cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct 
attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised 
at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after 
which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The 
resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part 
of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride 
to 1,000 parts of water. 

FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. 

In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the 
womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic 
tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between 
the womb and fetal membranes ; the blood vessels of the one commu- 
nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are 
prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes 
after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of 
septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive 
and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In 
such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the 
foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached 
with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the 
fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted 
with hope of success. 

EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS. 

It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a 
large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size 
is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of 
being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is 
always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped 
female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off- 
spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show 
them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the 
very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives — to 
induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and 
to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. 

CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. 

In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around 
a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the 



172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

latter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at 
birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as 
the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb 
and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, 
die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily 
delivered. 

WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE FOAL. 

This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles 
of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a 
great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes 
upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation 
(fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress 
as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same 
time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) 
all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when 
progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In 
the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the 
enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing 
it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating 
the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior 
presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed 
along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punc- 
tured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen- 
tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward, 
and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first 
object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it 
as above suggested. 

DROPSY OK THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES. 

The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is 
less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com- 
pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the 
foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail 
to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind 
legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress 
ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of 
the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its 
soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity 
and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may 
be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest 
and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between 
the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the 
diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be 
easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 173 

through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the 
breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta- 
tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed 
with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the 
flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate 
dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the 
liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still 
engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad- 
vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the 
pelvis and passed out where it can expand. 

GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS. 

In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the 
skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure 
with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after 
the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape 
of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com- 
monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured 
nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted Avhole, and resort must be had 
to embryotomy. 

SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. 

This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have 
only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile 
efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These 
cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent 
that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of 
the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry 
that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The 
hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered 
the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. 
The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving 
a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition for four 
days. 

CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. 

The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups 
of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per- 
sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted 
and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this 
part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the 
head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the 
right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are 
contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In 
neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straight- 



174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and 
natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some- 
times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to 
which it is tinned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back 
of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, 
the next resort is embryotomy. 

TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM. 

Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, 
internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. 
In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel- 
oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually 
sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural 
tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the 
tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. 

MONSTROSITIES. 

Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi- 
tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some 
part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun- 
dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided 
into — - 

(1) Monsters with absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or 
other organ. 

(2) Monsters with some part abnormally small — dwarfed head, 
limb, trunk, etc. 

(3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts — cleft head, 
trunk, limbs, etc. 

(4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions — absence of 
mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. 

(5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal 
opening, etc. 

(0) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved 
spine, face, limb, etc. 

(7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super- 
numerary digits, etc. 

(8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs 
hermaphrodites. 

(!)) Double monsters — -double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, 
etc. 

Causes. — The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. 
Sianc monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., 
run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. 
Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet- 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 175 

rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex- 
ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with 
each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from 
accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or 
portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. 
Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each 
having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one 
having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav- 
ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor 
perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or 
member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient 
center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as 
a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. 
In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac- 
tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its 
influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such 
redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding 
portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are 
attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a 
common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other 
by corresponding points, naval to naval, breast to breast, back to 
back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the 
same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The 
effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to 
the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. 
Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break- 
ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the 
formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and 
other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the 
womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are 
at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, 
mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi- 
lar way, acting probably through the same channels. 

The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such 
as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented 
double; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the 
passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has 
attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one f* (us 1ms become 
inclosed in or attached to another, etc. 

Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and 
securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its 
smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be 
needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the 
side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations 
necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. 



176 



DISK ASKS OF THE HORSE. 



In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to 
remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles 
employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Cesarean section, 
by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of 
the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the 
sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a 
monster. (See " Embryotomy," p. 182.) 



ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. 

Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of 
both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog- 
nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the 
passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned 
upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to 
one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog- 
nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run- 
ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or 
that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of 
the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one 
fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its 
delivery will proceed in the natural way. 

TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. 



Fore limbs. 



Anterior pres- 
entations. 



Posterior pres- 
entations. 



Head ■ 



Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short- 
ened. 
Crossed over the neck. 
Bent back at the knee. 
Bent back from the shoulder. 
Bent downward on the neck. 
Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. 
Turned to one side. 
Turned upward and backward on the back. 

Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. 

Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. 

Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. 

fBent on itself at the hock. 
'\Bent at the hip. 

Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. 

Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. 

/With back and loins presented. 
I With breast and belly presented. 



Hind limbs 



Transverse presentation of body 



FORK LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. 

In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the 
knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the 
front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to 
the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the 
tore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The 
condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against 
the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. 
Relief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running 



PLATE XIII. 




and croup presenXattoTo. 







. interior presentation Hi rut - limb de i in linn . 



JULIUS BIEN (t CO ! 



AHNOH M AL PRE S E N TAT I O N S . 



PLATE XI V . 




Anterior presentation Head aimed on side. 




Anterior prese/itation Head turned, on ha, -J: 






AB NOR MAL PRE SENTATIONS, 




5 = 




: - — 




-K - 



t 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 177 

noose is passed around each fetlock and a repell'er (see Plate IX) 
planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward 
while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby- 
raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be 
placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have 
advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a 
repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the 
shortening; is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this 
way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and 
in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. 
This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a 
ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the 
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) 

ONE FORE LIMP. CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. 

With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the 
resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers 
a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand 
introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and 
farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which 
the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. 

If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may 
bruise and lacerate the vagina. By siezing the limb above the fetlock 
it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu- 
rition will proceed normally. 

FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. 

The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee of 
the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig. 1.) First 
place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push 
back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing 
the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and 
bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by 
little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, 
and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when 
parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are 
bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, 
one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the 
right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. 

FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. 

In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting 

limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XI, fig. 4.) 

By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn 

forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the 

H. Doc. 795, 59-2 12 



178 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and 
seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed 
buck by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or 
on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up 
into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in 
the last paragraph. 

HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS. 

This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can 
be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper 
border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back 
beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the 
two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until 
the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist- 
ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted 
upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes 
the natural position and parturition is easy. 

When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible 
to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the 
limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by 
dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers 
may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being 
pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, 
and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. 

If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into 
the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on 
its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare 
may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele- 
vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the 
ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be at- 
tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp 
hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, 
and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the 
foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul- 
sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins 
of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the 
head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer 
and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can bo 
straightened out on the neck. 

All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs 
(embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. 
If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to 
push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind 
limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and 
delivery effected with the posterior presentation. 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179 

HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. 

In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along 
the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck 
turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. 
(Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable 
to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is 
turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being 
noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- 
ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the 
head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such 
displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free 
use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into 
the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be 
reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until 
the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult 
cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the 
aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon 
this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same 
way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between 
the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into 
position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be 
resorted to as advised under the last heading. 

HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK. 

This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of 
the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and 
is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate 
XIV, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove 
most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is 
straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. 

HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. 

In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind 
limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind 
feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the 
more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. 
(Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc- 
ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet, 
will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push 
them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing 
in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the 
attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car- 
rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the 
repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure 



180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off 
as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see " Embryotomy ") ; then 
nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these 
while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re- 
maining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. 

ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. 

The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic 
passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the 
pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- 
row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos- 
sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the 
passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, 
the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- 
ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are 
turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes 
natural. 

BACK OF THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. 

In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi- 
tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the 
body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head 
and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. 
Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and 
head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on 
her back. 

In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the 
foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to 
make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore 
limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy. 

HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK. 

In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up 
beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by 
reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced 
can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in 
the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a 
rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push 
the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up 
into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the 
foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be 
protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the 
brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the 
pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 181 

some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia 
and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator 
fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open : 
First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend 
the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in 
this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint 
and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted. 

HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. 

This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- 
scribed. (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be 
passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, 
so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom- 
plished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until 
the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met 
with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort. 

HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR 

DOWNWARD. 

These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and 
are to be managed in the same way. 

PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. 

This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with 
the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the 
entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into 
the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ex- 
tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds 
to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above 
or below. 

In anjr such position the object should be to push the body of the 
fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring 
up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage 
so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This 
turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, 
by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the 
use of a propeller. 

PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. 

This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended 
across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward 
the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate 
XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet 
with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As 



182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the 
pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into 
the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it 
prove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed 
around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a 
rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed 
back. 

EMBRYOTOMY. 

This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk 
and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- 
tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will 
vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of 
one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. 
Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or 
both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or 
to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest opera- 
tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision 
of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to 
notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by 
the skilled anatomist. 

Amputation of the head. — This is easy when both fore limbs are 
turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more 
difficult Avhen the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as 
in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the 
lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided 
circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the 
ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision 
is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected 
from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other 
soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebra? 
(neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage 
of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- 
cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck 
may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, 
the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In 
the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck 
in ust be removed with the head. When the head has been detached, 
a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial 
opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed 
as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have 
been brought up into position. 

Amputation of the hind limb. — This may be required when there 
are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock 
or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that 
for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge. 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 183 

Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the 
skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the 
groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be 
reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles 
around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments 
of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by 
strong dragging. 

Amputation of the fore limbs. — This may usually be begun on the 
fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife 
is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly 
hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large 
enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the 
palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the 
blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed 
out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around 
the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en- 
tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of 
the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin 
from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, 
and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. 
Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast- 
bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the 
whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper 
part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be 
cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be 
removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes 
the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer 
advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as 
to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The 
preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in 
various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at 
the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful 
incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a 
means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In 
dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all 
points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, 
or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is mean- 
while held tense to render the spud effective. 

In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round 
that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips 
of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock 
are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the 
lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful 
to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the 
same as described in the last paragraph. 



184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Tn case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so 
wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very 
difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint 
and disarticulating it. then dissecting the muscles back from the 
upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of 
the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc- 
tures were cut with the knife. 

Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints 
and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut ; then with 
cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in 
the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords 
around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them ; then remove 
the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, 
draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward 
beneath it. 

Reuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife 
separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter 
draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along 
with them the hind limbs. 

The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these 
procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means 
of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with 
extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage 
and utilize them for traction. 

Removal of the abdominal viscera. — In case the belly is unduly 
large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful 
to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. 

Removal of the thoracic viscera. — To diminish the bulk of the chest 
it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the 
heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free 
ends overlapping each other. 

Dissection of the trunk. — In case it becomes necessary to remove 
other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of 
preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this 
as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising 
traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to 
protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such 
part is passing. 

FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. 

This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a 
failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with 
ovnsion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- 
tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition 
may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185 

swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other 
mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in- 
troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly 
clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. 
Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv- 
ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of 
cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides 
this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still 
better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the 
Avomb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the 
walls generally. 

EVERSION OF THE WOMB. 

If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after- 
pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the 
organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole 
inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. 
The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction 
of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all 
of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. 
In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent 
position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc- 
tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on 
the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet 
should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign 
bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india 
rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches 
wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most 
dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good 
ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass 
of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a 
strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through 
which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. 
The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those 
portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or 
the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within 
itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the 
return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even 
by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be 
made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely 
wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into 
the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the 
operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the 
full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to 
straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still 



186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial 
inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which 
it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as 
before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual me- 
chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. 
The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. 
These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate 
IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is 
adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried 
up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound 
round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper 
part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, 
belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward 
between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of 
the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col- 
lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to 
the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the 
mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so 
that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should 
be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent 
straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), 
and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa- 
tive or binding diet. 

In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return 
of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 
ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare 
must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. 

RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. 

This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or 
from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take 
place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant 
dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through 
the opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and 
peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and 
from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping 
into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, 
but unless in excision of the womb this is practically impossible. In 
the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately 
sewed ii]) before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb 
must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half 
ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in- 
flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with 
hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium 
(one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily. 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 187 

RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA. 

These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup- 
ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the 
bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri- 
form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the 
bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In 
still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice 
with the vulva. 

Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at- 
tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The 
simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the 
muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is 
never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound 
communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill 
and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I 
can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. 

BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. 

(See " Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls," p. 169.) 

INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. 

These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or 
after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant 
infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the 
inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi- 
tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation 
tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is 
likely to occur. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring 
coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, 
inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking 
back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge 
from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and 
later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. 
Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character- 
istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is 
more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation 
tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent 
discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by 
extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning. 

Treatment. — In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal 
of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout- 
chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is 
fitted. Warm water should be passed until it comes away clear. To 



188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand 
may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns 
successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, 
the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu- 
tion 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 
2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice daily. Fomentation 
of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may 
greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice 
or thrice a da}', or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, 
may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi- 
cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of 
soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to. 

LETJCORRHEA. 

This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin- 
ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. 
Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of 
bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of 
the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge. 

Treat in (at may consist in Hie internal use of tonics (sulphate of 
iron, 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described 
under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection 
(carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 
quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. 

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION. 

This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre- 
quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with 
those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. 

DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 

'congestion and inflammation of the udder. 

This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the 
udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy 
swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of 
the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both 
of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is 
dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at 
times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows 
general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in 
abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- 
dation for a tumor of the gland. 

Treatment. — The treatment is simple so long as there is only con- 
gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil. or, better, camphorated 



DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189 

oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with 
the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When 
active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be 
kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam- 
phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and 
extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar- 
bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce 
saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates 
in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes 
fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic 
acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. 
In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts 
opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in- 
jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a 
small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer. 
(Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally 
and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu- 
ates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected 
daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard 
and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, 
vaseline 6 parts. 

TUMORS OF THE UDDER. 

As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat 
of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri- 
ously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell- 
ings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine, 
the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often 
implicated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future 
suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred. 

SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. 

By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- 
ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- 
tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. 
The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots 
burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before 
parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats 
use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and 
sulphate of zinc 5 grains. 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

By M. R. Trumbowkk, V. S. 
[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, P>. S., V. M. D.] 

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The nervous sj^stem may be regarded as consisting of two sets of 
organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish 
a communication between the centers and the different parts of the 
body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole 
may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebrospinal 
system; second, the symjjathetic, or ganglionic system. Each is 
possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. 

In the first, the center is made up of two portions — one large and 
expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elon- 
gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the 
canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys- 
tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in 
symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary 
muscles, and the organs. 

In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- 
nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on 
each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to 
the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. 

The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at 
the junctions. 

Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- 
tion of nervous matter, namel} 7 , the white or medullary, and the gray 
or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in 
consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected 
by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct 
forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells 
constitutes a nerve ganglion. 

The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to 

place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end 

organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act 

as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also 

190 



DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191 

for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A 
nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense 
areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma. 
Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves 
do not retract. 

Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and 
are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The 
stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. 
Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. 
When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting 
up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of 
them; they retain their individuality from their source to their 
termination. 

Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, 
or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to 
organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of 
the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, 
as follows : It is intended to associate the different parts of the body 
in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or 
depress the activity of another. 

The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- 
nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, 
the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum — and it is cov- 
ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these 
membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which 
lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of 
the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the 
canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and 
loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord ; it forms two layers, leav- 
ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- 
spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain 
from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher- 
ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more 
vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops, 
and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. 

The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, 
extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very 
large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part join- 
ing the cord. 

The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the 
brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the 
cerebrum. 

The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, 
immediately above the medulla oblongata ; it is globular or elliptical 



192 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the 
cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter 
in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move- 
ments; that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a 
definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances of tha 
equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. 

The a rebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the 
cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, 
and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of 
the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the 
cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. 
Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and 
willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be 
like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of 
the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. 

The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro- 
spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, 
and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind 
the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two 
lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates 
posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of 
nerve trunks— cauda equina. A transverse section of the cord reveals 
that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter 
internally. The spinal cord. does not fill up the whole spinal canal. 
The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the 
membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. 

The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each 
by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The 
nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and 
arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting 
from before backward. They also receive special names, according 
to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz ; 

1. Olfactory. "• Facial. 

2. Optic ■ 8. Auditory. 

3. Oculomotor. '•»• Glosso-pharyngeal. 

4. Pathetic. 10 - Pneumogastric. 

5. Trifacial. H- Spinal-accessory. 
C. Ahduccns. 12. Hypoglossal. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. 

Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the 
anatomical division's of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole 
at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary 
inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct 
mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the era- 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 193 

nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma- 
tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly 
the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate 
relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes 
involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in- 
flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam- 
mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses — 
the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the 
brain — without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma- 
tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly 
called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected, it is 
called meningitis ; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. Since all 
of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized 
separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered 
together. 

ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEREBRITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS 

MEMBRANES). 

Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme 
changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over- 
feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as 
concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes 
as sequela? to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon 
the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring 
structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. 

Symptoms. — The diseases here grouped together are accompanied 
by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso- 
ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point 
unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate 
mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating 
depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased 
sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac- 
tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute 
attacks these symptoms, hmvover, are not always noted. This condi- 
tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or 
spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The 
animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and 
delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and 
coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated, 
convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where 
the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be 
the prominent symptoms. Tn the former, condition the pulse will 
be quick and hard: in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila- 
tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The 
it. T><;r. 7!).",. nn-2 13 



194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, ami the disease 
approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute 
attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies 
before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve- 
ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral- 
ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise 
in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to 
increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by ;i 
decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character 
of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the 
structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral- 
ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic 
rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be- 
comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik- 
ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. 
Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop- 
ping himself against the manger or Avail, until he falls from inability 
of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go 
through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as 
trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a 
circle persistentty. Earty and persistent constipation of the bowels 
is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re- 
tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. 

Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and 
consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of 
temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the 
head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and 
does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. 

Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or 
may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison- 
ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by 
excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal 
usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly: the pupil of the eye does 
not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or 
shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and 
sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one 
limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some 
variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the 
disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic 
encephalitis may affect an animal for ten daj^s or two weeks without 
much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. Tf im- 
provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse 
order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic 
effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain 
sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 195 

acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda- 
tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. 

Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of 
cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a 
result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms 
are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or 
fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect 
control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some 
cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char- 
acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or 
abscess within the brain. 

Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct- 
ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually 
become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing 
their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. 
This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend 
along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete 
paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. 

Lesions. — On making post-mortem examinations of horses which 
have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an 
excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with 
correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents 
and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period 
of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en- 
gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the 
tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. 
If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found 
more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the 
brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the 
convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the 
membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different 
cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and 
are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. 

In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous 
effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in 
the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of 
membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, 
and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra- 
nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found em- 
bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, 
causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The menin- 
gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found 
between the membranes covering the brain. 

In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there 
is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of 



196 DISEASES OF THE HORSK. 

abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur- 
rounded Avith a softened condition of the brain matter, and some- 
times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development 
the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining 
membrane. In older or chronic cases, the Avails of the abscesses are 
generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance 
of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. 

Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the 
membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended 
and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma- 
tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very 
early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to 
lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, 
the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to 
contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished 
in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere- 
bri is is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan- 
gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby 
lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the 
attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only 
partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod- 
ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the 
main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the 
animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much 
as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the 
initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or 
stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should 
apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur- 
pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often 
as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal 
is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good 
results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while 
there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head 
are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept 
on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct 
softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat 
from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be 
made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given 
at one dose : Barbados aloe-. 7 drams; calomel. -2 drams: powdered 
ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite. 'JO drops. 

The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from 
noise as possible. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of 
bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six 
hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the 
action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 197 

20-drop closes, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract 
of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified 
and the pulse regular and full. 

If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the 
advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early 
stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec- 
tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every 
six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus- 
tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed 
in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. • 

If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis), we must 
place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental 
treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in 
2-dram doses should be given three times a daj^ and 1 dram of calo- 
mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem- 
branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to 
which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given 
every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. 
After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides 
ointment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects 
remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of 
strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may 
be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular 
twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene- 
fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. 
Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early 
treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis- 
posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed 
to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. 
When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be 
treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due 
to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, 
toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their 
removal or mitigation. 

Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess- 
ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by 
the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the 
diagnosis is largely presumptive. 

CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. 

Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the 
vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or 
passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or 
diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the 
vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. 



198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Causes. — Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of 
the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of 
extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. 
Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction 
which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the 
heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the 
blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, 
and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. 

Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject 
to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, U 
merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree 
involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- 
trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries 
and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a 
stroke of apoplexy. 

Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- 
festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly 
and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, 
make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and 
stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by 
coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, 
the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and 
giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or 
to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may 
be of slow 7 development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im- 
perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi- 
bility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In 
milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and 
ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. 

Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are 
loaded w T ith blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme 
degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes act mil 
compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post- 
mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through- 
out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from 
inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are 
confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con- 
gestion may. however, lend to active inflammation, and in that case 
we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. 
In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find 
the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases 
where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found 
permanently dilated. 

Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the 
circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, 



SUNSTROKE. 199 

the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse 
should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or 
abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To 
revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold 
water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's 
salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard 
water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain 
after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will 
be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. 
Prevention. — Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the 
collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade; 
regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex- 
cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy 
movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, 
pure water, etc. 

SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. 

The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu- 
sively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the 
action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. 
Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential 
factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un- 
dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb 
to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the 
sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, 
feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun- 
stroke. 

Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, 
drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- 
scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very 
slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of 
the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. 
The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F. 

In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some 
time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally 
perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the 
breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils 
dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse 
is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness 
and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a 
long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may 
persist. 

Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, 
often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes 
this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital 



200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete 
stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want 
of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due 
to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the 
heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also 
changes in the composition of the blood. 

Treatment. — ruder no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in 
sunstroke. Ice or ver}' cold water should be applied to the head and 
along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 
ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water 
should be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or 
otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down 
to 103° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits 
of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim- 
ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become 
stronger and sloAver. In cither case, when reaction has occurred, 
preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva- 
lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian. ."> drams; red cinchona 
bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. 

Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges 
or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be 
sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper 
attention should be given to feeding and watering, .never in excess. 
During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven- 
tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or 
disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the 
system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they 
want while they are at work during hot weather. 

An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to 
have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting 
causes. 

APOPLEXV, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. 

Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true 
apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with 
blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. 

Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, 
the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen- 
eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause 
is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. 

Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- 
tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath- 
ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be- 
comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. 
If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited. 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 201 

sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent 
and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the 
brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extrava- 
sated blood ; hence these conditions are very variable. 

In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- 
perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain 
in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the 
brain, or sunstroke. 

Pathology. — In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous 
condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of 
their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- 
lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- 
brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible 
pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing 
local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may 
recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes 
place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or 
softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render 
the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all 
stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams 
of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. 
Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be 
harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is 
extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to 
diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to 
subsequent attacks. 

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone 
may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is 
robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due 
to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach- 
noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through 
compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct 
cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. 

Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized 
paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the 
brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be 
our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the 
paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of 
the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert 
veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering 
compression. 

Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of 



202 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign 
bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute 
diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such 
as the exigencies of the case demands. 

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- 
ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; 
by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often 
cause concussion of the brain. 

Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, 
stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme- 
diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The 
animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the 
spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or 
stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more 
severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable 
time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible 
to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, 
muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a 
variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked 
by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, 
etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im- 
pairment of some organs remains. 

Pathology. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at 
least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe 
to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with 
their respective symptoms of functional derangement. 

Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- 
tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be 
accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- 
mal ; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil 
and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases 
this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more 
severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and 
above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness 
stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. 
Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos- 
sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction 
may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then 
have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants 
should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned 
as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further 
treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed- 
ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203 

this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is 
never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when 
he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the 
lungs in inspiration. 

Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first 
few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- 
quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their 
balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus 
causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. 

ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. 

This is a physiological condition in sleep. 

Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when 
the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. 
In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting 
fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing 
within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the 
supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, 
ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most 
frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by 
a blood clot. 

Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently 
a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or 
epileptic fits occur. 

Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood 
vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub- 
stance softened. 

Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General 
tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous 
excitement. 

HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN. 

This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or 
in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of 
external and internal hydrocephalus. 

External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con- 
sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the 
brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied 
by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore- 
head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The 
disease is incurable and usually fatal. 

Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists 
in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities 
or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may 
be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood 



204 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long- 
continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre- 
disposed to this condition. 

The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and 
rom their nature this di aase is sometimes known as " dumminess " 
or " immobility." A horse so afflicted is called a " dummy." Among 
the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem- 
ory, etc The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with 
a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is 
there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being 
placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to 
drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the 
bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration 
becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are 
periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. 
At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so 
afflicted is said to have " staggers.* 1 The outlook for recovery is not 
good. 

Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri- 
tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly 
indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels 
should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of 
small regular doses of Glauber's salts. 

TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. 

Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- 
quently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of 
voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more 
common tumors are the following: 

Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not 
very uncommon. 

Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a 
tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying- 
loose within the cranium. 

Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently 
met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any 
appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all 
ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both 
of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. 

Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in 
the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance 
are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt. 

Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc- 
tures of the brain. 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205 

Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the 
structure of the cerebellum. 

Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. 

SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. 

Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain 
and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the 
motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any 
part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate 
an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be 
induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by 
effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid 
strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the 
circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonic 
spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, 
as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, 
or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary 
as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, 
and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. 

Spasm of the glottis. — This is manifested by a strangling respira- 
tion ; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration ; extreme 
anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the 
body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion 
becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very 
dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. 

Spasms of the intestines. — (See " Cramp colic," p. 58.) 

Spasms of the neck of the bladder. — This may be due to spinal irri- 
tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre- 
quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. 

Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps. — Spasmodic contraction of 
the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally 
occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or 
road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces 
irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become 
very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among 
horsemen as "thumps." This condition may be distinguished from 
violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of 
the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the 
body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each 
other. (See " Palpitation of the heart," p. 236.) 

Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb. — This is frequently 
witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors — generally in 
eold weather — or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is 
probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps 
of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex 



20G DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the leg arc unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but 
is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, 
appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change 
position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or 
it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a 
dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back- 
ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after 
him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. 
Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of 
the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was 
unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. 

Treatment of spasms. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro- 
form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscle- 
will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single exter- 
nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul- 
phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest 
and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of 
whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring 
relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo- 
dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv- 
ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character 
demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes 
relaxation very quickly ; therefore the animal should be led out of 
the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement 
caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about 
immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be 
used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda- 
num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer- 
tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may 
return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it 
does very quickly. 

Convulsions. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system 
which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the 
word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often 
such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. 
General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body. 
with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, 
and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- 
tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is 
required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self- 
limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move- 
ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood, 
the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the 
exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce 
the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil- 



DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 207 

ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy 
so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. 
Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal 
of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. 

CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE. 

Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary 
muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to 
pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms 
in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting 
granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and 
other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. 

Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- 
den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. 
This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency 
to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of 
the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground 
the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the 
ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect 
one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the 
upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the 
hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed " shivering " by 
horsemen. 

Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so 
frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary 
muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce 
much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be 
regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. 

Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec- 
tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 
(ham; pulverized mix vomica, 1 dram; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. 
Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the 
form of Fowler's solution is often beneficial. If the cause is con- 
nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. 

EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. 

The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. 
In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is 
located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain 
may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice 
a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. 

Symptoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. 
The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the 
jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be- 



208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls 
down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the 
breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes 
off, and the animal gets on his feet in a feAv minutes after the return 
of consciousness. 

Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. 
After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed 
twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the 
tonic prescribed for chorea. 

PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. 

Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, 
by diminution of loss of the. conducting power or stimulation of the 
motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and 
the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and 
sensibility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other 
is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The 
latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small 
portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig- 
nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from 
the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis. 

Causes. — The} r are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the 
brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease 
of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce 
suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. 
Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the. 
parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed 
a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the 
various forms of palsy. 

General paralysis. — This can not take place without producing 
immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis 
of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are 
involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the 
brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, 
concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure 
is involved in functional disturbance. 

Hemiplegia^ or paralysis of one side, or half, of the body. — Hemi- 
plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of 
the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from 
extra vasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi- 
sons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or 
the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma- 
tory character, it is seldom complete; it may affecl only one limb and 
one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off 
in a few days srfter the disappearance of all the other evidences of the 



PARALYSIS. 209 

primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia 
arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, 
or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened 
by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most 
cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well 
as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in 
the paralysis. 

Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the 
animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of 
the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the 
mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food 
or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as 
it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be 
entirely lost or only partial ; the limbs may be cold and sometimes 
unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the 
animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have 
great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal 
may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is 
complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare. 

Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities. — Pa- 
ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam- 
mation affecting the spinal cord. (See " Spinal meningitis," p. 211, 
and ""Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irrigation 
from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion 
caused by blood poisons, etc. 

Symptoms. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, 
from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive 
in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by 
agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. 

Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a 
weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. 
The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is 
pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages 
may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill- 
conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and 
bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and 
necessitate his destruction. 

Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement. — This is charac- 
terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. 
The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out 
of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or 
stagger, especially in turning. "When this is confined to the hind 
parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it 
may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are 
" H. Doc. 795, 59-2 14 



210 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on 
the base of the brain. 

Local paralysis. — This is frequently met with in horses. It may 
affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very 
frequently overlooked in diagnosis. 

Facial paralysis. — This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is 
due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial 
muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the 
brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon- 
gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. 

Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous 
lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in 
chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. 

Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring. — This condition is character- 
ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro- 
phied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal 
nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con- 
dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent 
nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by 
plastic exudation. 

Paralysis of the rectum and tail. — This is generally the result of a 
blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone 
and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum 
and muscles belonging thereto. This facture would not be suspected 
were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. 

Intestinal paralysis. — Characterized by persistent constipation ; 
frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the 
movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, 
or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the 
bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition 
may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud- 
den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels 
or paralysis. 

Paralysis of the bladder. — This usually affects the neck of the blad- 
der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles 
away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, 
disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury 
to the spinal cord, etc. 

Paralysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis. — A paralysis of eyesight 
may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, 
acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive 
doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the 
pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not 
respond to light. 



SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211 

Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial 
paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels 
from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of 
deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the 
supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. 

Treatment for paralysis. — In all paralytic affections there may be 
anesthesia, or impairment of sensibility, in addition to the loss of 
motion, or there may be hyperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in 
-connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for 
special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where 
hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve 
suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 
3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is 
marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to 
secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious 
injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat- 
ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and 
attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the 
cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general 
external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong 
irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi- 
plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the 
neck ; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths 
will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of 
powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a 
day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then 
discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a 
smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide 
of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em- 
ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or 
obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution 
of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water 
proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the 
application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, 
facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not 
too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise 
if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should 
be observed in all cases. 

SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING 

THE SPINAL CORD. 

Causes. — This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood 
poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of 
injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebra*, rheumatism, etc. 

Symptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or 



212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- 
sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity 
along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly 
and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para- 
plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes 
sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the 
beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead 
us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions 
usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the 
meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two; 
practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about 
the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, 
and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts 
of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. 

Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same 
condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum 
between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent 
to the pia muter serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time 
after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. 
Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the 
cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. 

Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, 
to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con- 
trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture 
of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. 
One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- 
cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six 
hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the 
pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected 
hvpodermicalty. The animal must be kept as free from excitement 
as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn 
off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener- 
ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better 
some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the 
1 1 eatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda- 
tive products and a strengthening of the s}'stem and stimulation of 
the nervous functions. To induct' absorption, iodide of potassa in 
2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a 
day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day 
and 1 dram of mix vomica once a day may be given in the feed. 
Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the 
current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or 
three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of 
the vertebrae, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be 
destroyed at once. 



DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 213 

MYELITIS. OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. 

This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- 
gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, 
phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. 
Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve 
the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, 
or degeneration. 

Symptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the 
muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the 
bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either 
retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by 
complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of 
the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The 
paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper 
circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular 
eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs 
form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery 
takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when 
all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, 
until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. 

Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length 
of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others ; 
when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con- 
fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, 
often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements 
are degenerated. 

Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. 

SPINAL CONGESTION. 

This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels 
of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, 
peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The 
symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis 
and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is 
almost invariably affected also. 

Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, 
blows, and falls. 

/Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case. 
and closely resemble the first sjnnptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal 
tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower- 
ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the 
seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter- 
ference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region 
of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the 



214 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 

congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia 
may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or 
muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal 
congestion from spinal meningitis. 

Treatment. — Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses 
fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture 
of aconite root i20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel- 
iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to 
recover. 

SPINAL ANEMIA. 

This may be caused b} T extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal 
embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with 
the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, 
thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel ; the spinal vessels may be 
caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of periph- 
eral irritation of some nerve. 

Symptoms. — Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in 
extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the 
weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in- 
creased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con- 
gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. 

Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re- 
covers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. 

SPINAL COMPRESSION. 

When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it 
produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- 
traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes 
complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed 
part of the cord. 

Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, 
disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in- 
creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec- 
tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite 
side. 

Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam- 
matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. 
When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure 
from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. 

SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. 

This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in 
connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The 
blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, 
and large clots be formed. 



DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 215 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat 
and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com- 
pression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia, 
accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the 
paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; 
on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or 
diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. 
When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi- 
cates that the spinal cord is compressed. 

Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, 
whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to 
apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or 
congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of 
tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have 
been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses 
may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of 
sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and 
lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should 
be kept perfectly quiet. 

SPINAL CONCUSSION. 

This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently 
severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. 
It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced 
by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches 
may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or 
spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and 
some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic 
effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until 
the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary 
effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be 
treated as heretofore directed. 

SPINAL TUMORS. 

Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco- 
mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the 
meninges and the vertebra;, being of a fibrous or bony nature, r.nd 
affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we 
may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms 
of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. 

Symptoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal 
irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop- 
ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain 
muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis 
induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the 



216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is 
within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be 

present. 

Treatment. — General tonics and 1-drani doses of mix vomica may 
be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three 
times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases. give some temporary 
benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. 

NEURITIS. OK INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. 

This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or b} T strangulation 
in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. 
The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of 
the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil- 
tration of serum mixed with pus. 

Symptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and 
absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. 

Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor- 
phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an 
inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below 
the ligature. 

NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. 

Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve 
or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or 
wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation 
of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of 
months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath 
of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval. 
running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. 

Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more 
especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the 
tumor it causes extreme suffering. 

Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve 
above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. 

[N JURIES TO -NERVES. 

These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, 
compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend 
upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may 
quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or 
cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralvsis, and other 
serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some 
form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessa- 
rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the 
principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. 



FOKAGE POISONING. 217 

It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve 
has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to 
remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat- 
ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, 
the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, 
and rest. 

FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. 

This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United 
States. It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North 
Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri, 
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it 
almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de- 
pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water 
containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown 
to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., 
or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami- 
nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis- 
ease when the growth' of grass is so profuse that it mats together and 
the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. 

In England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due 
to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten 
while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn- 
sylvania it was formerly known by the name of " putrid sore throat " 
and " choking distemper.' 1 A disease similar in many respects, which 
is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is 
commonly known by the name of " blind staggers," and in many of 
the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of 
worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this 
disease. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic, 
cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horse-, 
namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In 
the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp- 
toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal 
may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil- 
ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of 
the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the tem- 
perature is not elevated — indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This 
is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, 
delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto- 
matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become 
very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head 
in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him 
quiet until he expires. Death in these eases usually takes place in 



218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

from four to twenty- four hours from the time the first symptoms be- 
come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis- 
ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very 
rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch- 
ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be- 
comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- 
tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the 
tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when 
we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than 
normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, 
and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be some- 
what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two 
or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power 
to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty 
in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may ap- 
pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing 
stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to 
stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of 
the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten 
days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is 
no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress 
of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol- 
lows, painless and without a struggle. 

In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the 
limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never 
entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- 
ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth 
day and recovers. 

In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may 
be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether 
absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal- 
lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma 
remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. 
When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually 
leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis 
majr remain for some time, rarely persistent. 

One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later 
time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three 
attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. 

Trratment. — In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom 
successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- 
cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- 
low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to 
G ounces of whisky in '2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia 



TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219 

vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse 
consciousness. 

In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and 
the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain 
doses' twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder 
muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The 
strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia 
or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain 
doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every 
four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a 
heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and 
excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such 
food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly 
before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling 
and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. 

Pathology. — Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more 
or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and 
effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the 
cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened 
in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action 
existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely 
negative, no gross lesions being visible. 

Hygienic measures needful. — Whenever this disease appears in a 
stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They 
should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained 
stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food 
and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable 
should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat 
of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of 
water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are 
replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im- 
portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased 
grain, hay, and grass. 

TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 

This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of 
the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by 
the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are 
rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con- 
tractions of convulsive violence. 

Causes. — This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in 
the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab- 
sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes 
the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point 



220 DISEASES OF TI1K HOUSE. 

where it is introduced, bul its poison is absorbed, and is carried by 
the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is 
poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous 
than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote 
from the oxygen of the air. Heme, nail pricks, etc., are especially 
dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be 
traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of 
tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the 
introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may 
come on a long time after the wound is healed — three or four months. 
In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump- 
tion is that it is due to a specific genu. Horses with a nervous, ex- 
citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug- 
gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the 
result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. 

Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute 
attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms 
which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and 
swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner 
part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination 
of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full 
extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita- 
bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw 7 and neck. The 
muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are 
moved in a still' manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws 
the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail 
is usually elevated and held immovable: the bowels become consti- 
pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much 
changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra- 
vated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with 
a continuous tremor running through them: a cold perspiration 
breaks out on the body: the breathing becomes painful from the 
spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely 
set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di- 
lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony 
until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much 
a fleeted, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the 
spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws 
may never become entirely locked: the nervous excitability and rigid- 
ity of the muscles are not so great. There is. however, always some 
si illness of the neck or spine manifest in turning: the haw is turned 
over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for 
owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after 
the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- 
ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually 



TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 221 

diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage 
wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In 
some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- 
fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In 
such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head 
symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the 
head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- 
fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. 

Tetanus may possibly be confounded Avith spinal meningitis, but 
the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the 
difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, 
and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the 
distinction. 

Prevention. — Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it 
is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of 
tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder- 
mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be 
afforded. 

Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box stall without 
bedding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country 
district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where 
the noise of other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moder- 
ately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a 
light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet about him, 
to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Teta- 
nus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given 
in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. 
Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in glycerin and water (car- 
bolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be 
useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily. 

A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes 6 to 8 drams, with which 
may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be 
given at once. This is best given in a ball form ; if, however, the ani- 
mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may 
be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the 
tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt 
to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such 
cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of 
morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected 
under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the 
animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the 
severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and 
lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes 
by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of 
cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may 



222 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal- 
low liquids, oatmeal gruel and milk should be given by injection per 
rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water 
should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach 
it without special effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the 
mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may be obtained 
by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater pari of 
the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. 
This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. 
It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani- 
mal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it should be used every day 
until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of 
any lasting benefit. 

Recently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec- 
ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to 
the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. 
When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned 
and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has 
healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it 
is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when 
the animal becomes excited from any cause. 

RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. 

This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the 
result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The 
development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to 
three months — very rarely in two weeks. (See also page 545.) 

/Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis- 
ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight 
noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, 
or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own 
limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes 
appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all 
sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will con- 
tinually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid 
animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the 
bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urina- 
tion, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious 
symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat 
and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward 
the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. 
The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent 
spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become para- 
lyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed 






LEAD POISONING. 223 

by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency 
from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for 
tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of 
the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and 
evidence of viciousness is absent. 

Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained 
the animal should be killed. 

Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a 
rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot 
iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. 

PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. 

This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habit- 
ually drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors 
or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form 
near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works, 
lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on 
the grass and herbage which the horses ate. 

Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the func- 
tions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs princi- 
pally. In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly 
there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. 
If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets 
out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring, 
also, is very frequently a symptom of lead poisoning. When it 
affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair 
becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When 
the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis 
gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken 
in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma 
and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is 
seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the 
gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive 
odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. 

Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of 
potassa three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the sys- 
tem, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular 
weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses 
and strichnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases 
of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the 
supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of 
soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works, great care must be given 
to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc. 



224 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

UREMIA. 

Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- 
nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become 
impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer 
eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system 
and give rise to uremic poisoning. 

Symptoms. — Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of 
the limbs or abdomen; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed; then 
drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Sud- 
denly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body 
becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and 
intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The 
temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the 
disease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the 
brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea 
in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found 
in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. 

Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. 

ELECTRIC SHOCK. 

Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- 
ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect 
upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of 
electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary 
contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos- 
sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous 
and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal 
the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp- 
ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and 
not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera- 
ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. 
The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory 
depression. 

Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermic-ally in 
one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats 
are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, 
mill consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may 
also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or 
ammonia water may be used. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, 
AND LYMPHATICS. 

By M. R. Trum bower, V. S. 

[Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 

The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of 
the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account 
of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. 
It is cone-shaped, with the base upward ; the apex points downward, 
backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to 
the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. 
In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to 
the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is 
suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels, and held in posi- 
tion below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It 
is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense 
fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is 
reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the 
heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, 
known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a 
thin translucent liquid — is present constantly. 

The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side ; 
each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two 
compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac 
cavities — the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles; the inferior, 
or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the out- 
side by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are 
generally filled with fat. 

The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left 
the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through 
them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and 
are connected with the great veins — the venae cavse and pulmonary 
veins — through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. 
The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aper- 
ture, the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a 
remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood 
from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course. 
The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive 
portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a par- 
tition, and are connected with the great arteries — the pulmonary 
artery and the aorta — by which they send blood to all parts of the 
H. Doc-. 7!).-). 59-2 15 225 



226 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary 
ait civ is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the 
reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo-ventricular valves 
in the left side are composed of two flaps, hence it is called the 
bicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is 
called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are 
connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles; 
and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with 
tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under- 
surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed — a condition which 
is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the 
cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and 
on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaped 
valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles 
contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of 
closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its 
aperture. 

The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the 
endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular 
structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining 
membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of 
the valves. 

The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood 
is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior vena? 
cava?. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening 
into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the 
lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is 
forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ven- 
tricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the 
system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, 
therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the 
right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the left side. 

As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of 
its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the 
impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the 
arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is 
quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause 
occurs ; this takes place in regular rhythmical order during health. 

The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo- 
gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve 
of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the 
nerve is cut, the heart-beats increase rapidly, and in fact the organ 
works without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hold- 
back, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the 
same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins, 



ANATOMY OF THE HEART. 227 

and the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to cir- 
culate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the 
vena? cavse, or systemic veins, and pulmonary artery, contain dark 
blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation. 

The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the 
pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. 
Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of 
uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in 
consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the 
capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined 
area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which 
they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system 
is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the 
veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood 
move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and 
the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the 
speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the 
venous trunks. 

In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis, 
occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of 
blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of 
pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries 
are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and 
breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with 
muscular tissue. When cut across they present, although empty, an 
open orifice ; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. 

In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath 
formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when 
the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within 
the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually de- 
scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from their relative 
positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their struc- 
ture so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, 
or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining 
membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers — an inner, con- 
sisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, 
whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica 
media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated 
muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and be- 
coming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost 
entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is com- 
posed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective 
tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the vessel. 
In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary 
network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat. 



228 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less 
elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica 
adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. 
The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of 
the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the 
course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply 
both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. 
The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known 
as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the 
arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter 
is about one three-thousandth of an inch. 

DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 

In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, 
depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the 
animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the 
chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so 
thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with 
difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among hor-^; 
the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of 
the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, 
etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the 
ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with 
any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a 
general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to 
lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, 
care, etc. 

Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by 
causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will 
leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic 
changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse 
and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive 
at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be 
able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en- 
couragement for medical treatment. 

Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is Avitnessed most 
frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, 
are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Xervous or 
timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than 
those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent 
or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. 
Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are diffi- 
cult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual 
coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to 
stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength 
and ability, etc. 





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DISEASES OP THE HEART. 229 

INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. 

This will embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. 

MYOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. 

The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or 
result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases. 
Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed 
by myocarditis. By extension of inflammation of the endocardium 
or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Over- 
exertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause 
this muscle to become inflamed. 

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inabil- 
ity to contract forcibly; this results in a rapid but weak, soft pulse 
and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a 
result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is 
great general weakness, shortness of breath, and rapid respiratory 
movements. In some cases, where the muscle is very much softened 
and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the 
heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly 
from paralysis or rupture of the heart. 

Alterations. — The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled 
appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easily. There may be a 
spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in struc- 
ture in small areas; these small areas may be due to suppuration, in 
which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last 
condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of 
long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase 
to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall. 

Treatment. — In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart 
should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care, 
and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat 
such foods as he will take ; he should be kept in an air}^ box stall ; his 
legs should be well rubbed as often as necessary to keep them warm 
and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally, the horse 
may have strychnia in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisky in 4-ounce 
doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture in 
doses of 1 dram every three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in 
heaping tablespoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily 
for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and should 
be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete. 

ENDOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART. 
USUALLY INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. 

Endocarditis frequently occurs as a complication of rheumatism, 
some of the specific or zymotic fevers, specific poisoning, etc. This 
is a more frequent disease among horses than is generally known, 



230 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

and often gives rise to symptoms which, at first, are obscure and 
unnoticed. 

In influenza we may find the heart becoming involved in the dis- 
ease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the 
heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections, 
in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a 
primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special 
attention to this disease. 

Endocarditis may be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute inflam- 
mation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endo- 
cardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be 
followed by a coagulation of fibrin upon the inflamed surface, which 
adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy- 
like granular elevations; this may lead to a formation of fibrinous 
clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or 
third day. 

Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not 
become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is 
characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions 
of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other 
in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to sus- 
pect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which 
it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the 
valves are much involved. When coagula or vegetations form upon 
the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when 
formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these 
materials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood 
current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to sud- 
denly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In 
the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, 
whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear 
in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the 
interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the 
circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usually 
consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But 
while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the 
walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little 
or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular 
structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible 
than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the 
blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary 
changes, which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously im- 
pair the animal's usefulness. What was but a slight obstruction to 
the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the 
cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much in- 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 231 

creased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of 
the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles, 
more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left 
auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the cap 
illaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difficult or asth- 
matic breathing — greatly increased in attempts to work — until in a 
few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work. 
Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of 
the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. De- 
rangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of the 
kidneys, may also appear. 

Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but 
in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is 
left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes 
the beginning of valvular disease. 

Symptoms. — Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sud- 
den and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in 
strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less 
tumultuously. In the early stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard 
by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond 
in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though 
not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is 
compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing, or shortness of 
breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. When 
the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visible 
mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored, 
and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. When 
the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant 
pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart 
contracts more frequently than the pulse beats — that is, there may be 
twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse 
waves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases 
we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal 
is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's 
action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest 
wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is 
not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs 
is cold — rarely excessively hot — and frequently the body of the ani- 
mal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial sup- 
pression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue 
with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven 
daj^s, without any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form 
in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless 
they become loosened and are carried away in the circulation ; then 
apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give 



232 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

further transmission. Jf the animal manifests symptoms of im- 
provement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels 
apparently as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall 
or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often 
proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, 
the breathing becomes quickened with a double flank movement as 
in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in a modified degree. 
An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufficiency, car- 
diac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. 

In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth 
day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of 
the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where 
plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals af- 
fected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood 
may convey septic matter. 

Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleu- 
ritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the 
(best wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of 
the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence 
of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on 
percussion. 

Treatment. — The objects to be attained by treatment will be to 
remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; 
to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart with- 
out weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and 
prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase 
of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be 
safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action exist- 
ing in the cardiac structures, and as long as any evidence of inflam- 
matory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a ten- 
dency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart 
or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural 
changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent 
treatment and complete rest. 

The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is 
perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of 
the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary 
secretion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained 
the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may 
demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the 
tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. 
Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should 
be avoided. The}'' serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible 
good. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the 
drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and then 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 233 

be superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in half-ounce doses, for the 
following week, or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally 
profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram 
doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of 
potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the valves, the 
iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the 
disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several 
weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed 
this drug becomes indispensable. 

When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circulaj 
tion or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much 
weakness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the 
iodide of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, 
may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a 
day, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated 
with difficult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, 
with comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from 
work should be allowed for a long time after all symptoms have dis- 
appeared. 

PERICARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. 

Causes. — Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, 
exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- 
erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma- 
tism, pleuritis, etc. 

Symptoms. — Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a 
brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful 
cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a 
rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is 
regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the 
pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a double 
or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side 
of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, cor- 
responding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as a 
friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this sound may 
disappear, due to a distension of the pericardium by an exudate or 
serous effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium, 
percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over 
the region of the heart, the heart-beats become less perceptible than in 
health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become 
audible. 

If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs 
for a short time; this friction may often be felt by applying the 
hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the 
muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the 
effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days or 



234 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases 
the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon 
the lungs and interference with the circulation becomes so great that 
death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, 
the characteristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis 
are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's 
action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases 
of pericardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac 
region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism, 
some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination 
will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. When 
pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the 
distinction may not be very clearly definable, neither will many 
recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost in- 
variably proves fatal. 

) Pathology. — Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very 
serious affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accu- 
mulation of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red 
and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. 
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed by 
an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which 
may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardia] 
sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces. 
Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the 
surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is ab- 
sorbed, the distinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain 
perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. When the serous 
effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its 
action, and may produce death soon ; when it is not so great, it may 
cause dropsies of other portions of the body. When the adhesions 
of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they gen- 
erally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or 
without dilatation of its cavities ; when they are but slight, they may 
not cause any inconvenience. 

Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi- 
talis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse 
and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia 
may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied 
to the legs; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be 
first applied; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to pro- 
mote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10 
grains of morphine may be given by the mouth once or twice a day; 
nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; 
after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be sub- 
stituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 235 

may give marked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be 
applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes 
chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be 
indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three 
times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of 
effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. 
Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, 
tapping by an expert veterinarian may save the animal. 

VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. 

Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, 
and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocar- 
dial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject — 
the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derange- 
ment may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of 
the valves may become covered by the organization of the exudation, 
thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions 
may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened, 
thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of 
blood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be 
transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of 
salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in 
ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become cov- 
ered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In 
cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and 
shrinking of the valves. 

Symptoms. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, 
jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; con- 
stant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing 
when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a 
fast trot; attacks of vertigo; congestion of the brain; dropsical swell- 
ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some- 
times be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the 
chest. 

Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. 

Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such 
as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When 
the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of 
tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these 
symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endo- 
carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimu- 
lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. 
Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time 
after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular 
structure of the heart. 



236 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IX THE HEART. 

Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in 
some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses 
have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac Avails. Fibrinous 
coagula and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the 
heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the 
mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a 
jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may 
slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can 
easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. 
They probably result from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which 
is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They 
are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. 

Polypous concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque, 
of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In 
some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they 
almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, 
but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere 
to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear- 
ance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between 
them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of 
fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the 
heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards 
contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source 
of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. 
They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus 
narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a 
proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious 
valvular disease. 

Symptoms. — These are frequently uncertain; they may, however, 
be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embar- 
rassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of 
breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect arterial- 
ization of the blood. 

Treatment. — Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia may be 
of service. 

PALPITATION OF THE HEART. 

This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It 
may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It 
may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, 
sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See " Thumps," pp. 
111. -JO.").) 

Symptoms. — The heart may act with such violence that each beat 
may jar the whole body of the animal: very commonly it may be 






DISEASES OF THE HEART. 237 

heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usually be 
traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to 
avoid or overcome in the future and thereby obviate subsequent 
attacks. Kest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digi- 
talis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to 
organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a symptom, 
not as a matter of primary specific treatment. 

SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING. 

Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be 
induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a 
mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. 

Symptoms. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary 
suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or 
total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though 
there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated 
pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap- 
idly sinking pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble 
or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is 
scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious. 
This state is uncertain in duration — generally it lasts only a few 
minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more 
distinct, and consciousness and muscular strength return. In cases 
attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the 
fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient 
occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly 
similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by 
the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mucous 
membranes. 

Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimu- 
lant — 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. 
Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may 
immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness 
from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, 
general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. 

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. 

Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its 
muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its 
cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In 
valvular disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently re- 
sults as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. 
The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilata- 
tion and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection 
with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an 
increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form 



238 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of 
action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart 
may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve 
one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity 
may retain its normal size {simple hypertrophy) or be dilated {eccen- 
tric hypertrophy), or it may be contracted {concentric hypertrophy). 
Hypertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of 
the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases its 
length ; of the right ventricle alone increases its breadth toward the 
right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers 
of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the mo.-t 
frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is 
affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost 
obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may 
become three or four times greater than the average heart. 

Symptoms. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual 
symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a pow- 
erful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left 
side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when 
full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of 
the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflamma- 
tion, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the 
jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the 
blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to 
the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the im- 
pulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the 
whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are 
greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area 
of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronger than normal. 

Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dull- 
ness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a 
moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years 
and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon con- 
comitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy 
of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and it becomes 
useless and incurable. 

Treatment. — If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it 
should be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thicken- 
ing, may be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of 
time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or 
more. The tincture of digitalis may be given, in cases where the 
pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This 
remedy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular. 
General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of 
l)ii Iky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. 



DISEASES OF THE HEART. 239 

DILATATION OF THE HEART. 

This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, 
and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilata- 
tion may be mentioned — simple dilatation, where there is normal 
thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where 
the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition 
of substance. 

Causes. — Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of 
the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most fre- 
quent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxa- 
tion of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart 
Avails, serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degen- 
eration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all 
lead to dilatation. 

Symptoms. — The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, 
a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale 
or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slight- 
est excitement. 

Treatment. — General tonics, rich food, and rest. 

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. 

Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited 
to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated 
at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally 
involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when 
emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is 
observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag 
form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and 
pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in ex- 
treme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. 
These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies 
of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other 
morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture, 
aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other 
organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. When it exists alone its pres- 
ence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to 
hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may 
be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, 
excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and 
phosphorus. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration 
are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general 
debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is 
apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other dis- 
eases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden 
death from rupture of the ventricular walls. 



240 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and 
t iniothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink- 
ing water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram 
doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants 
as they may be indicated. 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART. 

This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as 
fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular w 7 alls, 
etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pres- 
sure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture 
very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the 
rent is not very large. 

WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. 

This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting dis- 
ease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by 
a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. 

Treatment. — This should be directed to support and increase the 
strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Car- 
bonate of ammonia mr y be given to stimulate the heart's action and 
to prevent the formation of heart clot. 

CONGESTION OF THE HEART. 

Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the 
heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with 
the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocar- 
ditis or as a result of excessive muscular exertion. 

Symptoms. — Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible 
mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a gen- 
eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually 
results in death very quickly. 

CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. 

This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after 
birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale, which allows a 
mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the 

m 

heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the 
visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and general feeble- 
ness. Foals thus affected generally live only a few hours after birth. 

DISEASES OF ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. 

Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri- 
mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a con- 
tusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery ; severe 
muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the 
heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of 
a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat 



DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 241 

and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflam- 
mation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, 
whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the 
development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be 
acute, subacute, or chronic ; when the inner coat alone is affected it is 
known as endarteritis. 

Symptoms. — Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along 
the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by 
the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, 
suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we 
find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind 
limbs. 

Pathology. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, 
loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls; a roughness 
and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or 
pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the 
outer coat (periarteritis), both the outer and middle coat, or the 
inner coat alone (endarteritis) ; and by weakening the respective 
coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, 
calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or 
increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result 
in the condition known as arterio-capillary -fibrosis. Chronic endar- 
teritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. 
Arteritis may be limited to single trunks, or it may affect, more or 
less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of 
chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consist- 
ing chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down 
of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike 
openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called 
atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may 
be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi 
are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon 
the surface of the erosions. 

Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats 
may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon 
which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma 
of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of 
new tissue in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the 
capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often 
associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. 

Treatment. — Carbonate of potassa in 1-dram doses, to be given in 
4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran 
sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; 
externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. 
H. Doc. 705, 59-2 10 



242 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ATHEROMA. 

Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the 
lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater 
or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although 
the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any 
source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any 
part of the body; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased, 
in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common 
result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps 
the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the 
affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its 
natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its 
accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at 
the seat of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel. 
calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and sub- 
ject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is de- 
stroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in 
the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No 
symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition 
during life. 

CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. 

This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be 
impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel 
it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, col- 
lateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously 
supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of 
the aorta has produced death. 

ANEURISM. 

Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a 
dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its 
course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and 
atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery b\ 
a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. 

Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it 
appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. 
The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar 
fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar 
purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn- 
chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It 
is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor 
were enlarging tinder (lie hand. Aneurisms seated internally may 
occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the 



DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 243 

first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they pro- 
duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta 
may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very 
seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The 
tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difficulty in 
breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the venae cavse or the 
thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. In fact, 
whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, mav 
have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the 
chest is large, we generally find much irregularity in the action of the 
heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is 
usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There 
may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of lung affec- 
tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower 
part of the neck where it joins the chest, When the aneurism occurs 
in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable ; when 
it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will 
reveal it. 

There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequently over- 
looked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by 
a worm — Strongylus vulgaris. This worm produces an arteritis, with 
atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, asso- 
ciated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, 
which appears periodically in a very violent and often persistent 
type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the 
animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are 
habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the an- 
terior mesenteric artery may be suspected. 

Pathology. — Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse 
consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it 
assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneu- 
rism is atheromatous, or calcified ; the middle coat may be atrophied. 
The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dila- 
tation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of 
its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the 
wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it 
presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The 
cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or 
with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is pro- 
duced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with 
adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find 
large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which 
sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of 
this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and produce embolism of 
a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the 



244 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads 
to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms. 

Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate 
the tumor above and below. 

RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. 

Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is 
the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rup- 
ture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then 
form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it in- 
volves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large 
cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be 
produced by mechanical violence or accident. 

Symptoms. — In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the 
animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, 
the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, 
syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may 
not become noticeable ; if it is near the surface of the body a round or 
diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the 
rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding artery 
should be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be 
applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an 
artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. 

Treatment. — "When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, 
large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contrac- 
tion of the blood vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The 
animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. After- 
wards stimulants and nourishing food are indicated. 

THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. 

By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete clo- 
sure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the 
obstruction. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as 
a thrombus. The term embolism designates an obstruction caused by 
any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or 
of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall 
of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation: they may 
result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or 
by the retardation of the circulation. These formations may occur 
during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system. 
When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is cur- 
ried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the 
capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped 
until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system, the capil- 
laries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of 



DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 245 

thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruc- 
tion, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming 
detached from their end, and by being carried along by the circula- 
tion of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum 
becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting suppurative 
phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections 
characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, 
purpura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, 
hemorrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and pro- 
duce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may 
arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and 
attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and frag- 
ments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike 
excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis may occasionally 
form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop. 

Symptoms. — When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side, 
the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is 
impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to syncope rather than to 
strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and 
gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a 
feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a 
fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the 
right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration 
of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in 
the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes 
place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma. 

Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may be- 
come a question whether it was formed during life or after death. 
The loose, dark coagula, so often found after death are polypi. If 
the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the 
fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it 
be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the 
muscles of the papilla? and tendinous cords, the deposition has oc- 
curred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the 
fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false 
endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other 
large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in 
some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to con- 
tain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably 
an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist 
not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in 
a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a 
limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous 
elements with the blood. 

Treatment. — The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest, 



246 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 

stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the 
fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Car- 
bonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, 
and should he continued for a long time in small doses several times a 
day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, 
stimulants and tonics, and nitro-inuriatic acid as an antiseptic, may 
be beneficial. 

DISEASES OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. 

Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phleb- 
itis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited 
portion of a vein; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance; 
it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. 

Causes. — Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, 
an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in 
abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due 
to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood- 
letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous 
phlebitis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to the extent and sever- 
ity of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thick- 
ened, and indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A 
diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the af- 
fected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected 
with acute fever and general functional disturbance. 

Pathology. — The disease is only serious when large veins are 
a fleeted. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots 
of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory 
process continues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the 
vessel and produces a deep abscess ; or it may be carried aw r ay in the 
circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other remote 
organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel 
restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs 
frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for 
farcy ulcerations. A very common result of phlebitis is an oblitera- 
tion of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral circulation 
is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience. 

Treatment. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a 
smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel; early opening 
of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete 
rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. "When the fever 
runs high, half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the 
drinking water, which may be changed in two or three days for 
1-diain doses of the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes de- 
bilitated, carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 
drain-, may be given every six hours. 



DISEASES OF THE VEINS. 247 

VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS. 

This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory 
disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc- 
tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the 
vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may 
be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed 
in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation 
of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are 
occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. 
Varicose veins msij ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding 
tissues, or they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the 
blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. 

Treatment. — Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele 
should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may 
often be reduced by astringent washes — tea made from white-oak 
bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept 
loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. 
When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce incon- 
venience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated. 
Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages. 

AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM. 

It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the 
time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely 
dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with 
the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger 
from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities 
were forced into a large vein by artificial means. 

PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 

Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating 
diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in 
the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among 
poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and 
extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet 
undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so 
much upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the dis- 
turbance or diminished action of the vaso-niotor (outers. 

Symptoms. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of 
sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, 
limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark- 
edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large 
areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. 
The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become 
almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf- 



248 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

location. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion 
of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface 
and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of 
the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots. 
There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostril-: 
the tongue may he swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the 
jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty- 
eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the 
swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The 
temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and com- 
pressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough 
is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when 
the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with 
colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the 
disease, the lungs ma}' become edematous, extravasation may occur 
in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the 
chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few- 
cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or 
four days ; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe 
cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case 
to a fatal issue. 

Pathology. — On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connec- 
tive tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently 
we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving 
the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Exten- 
sive extravasations of blood may be found embedded between the 
coats of the intestines, or excessive effusion into the substance of 
the lungs. 

Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from 
the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cin- 
chona bark, li drains, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half 
a pint of water; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six 
hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by 
drenching. If the horse has difficulty in getting the head up and 
swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber 
syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water 
and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-OUnce doses, 
may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may be 
administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to L2 grains. Wash- 
ings with lead and alum water arc 1 useful and may be repeated several 
times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised 
freely ami the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily 
with a warm 3 per cent solution of creolin or other good antiseptic. 
Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise, 
must be treated with proper circumspection. 



DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 249 

DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood- 
vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and 
convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic 
glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic 
vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near 
the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the 
fluid part of the blood transudes to nourish the tissues outside 
the capillaries; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the 
blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the 
lymph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of 
the surplus of this lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their 
commencement can hardly be treated as independent structures, since 
their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they 
pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until 
they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph 
glands. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph 
flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a 
sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands 
are subject to inflammatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased struc- 
tures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph stream 
lodges in the glands and produces irritation. 

LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. 

Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connec- 
tion with some inflammatory process in the region from which its 
lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may 
become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased 
or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of the 
lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to sup- 
puration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of 
the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in 
pharyngitis, the postpharyngeal glands lying above the trachea be- 
come affected, etc. 

Symptoms. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the 
connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration 
usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflam- 
mation is of a milder type, resolution ma}^ take place and the swelling 
recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored 
without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain 
of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in 
farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning. 

Treatment. — Fomentation with hot water and the application of 
camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revul- 



250 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

sive action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of 
abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste 
with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment 
rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt 
a five opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus. 
The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlo- 
ride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day. 

LYMPHANGITIS. 

Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures usually affects 
the hind legs ; ver}' seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in 
its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature 
.and great general disturbance. 

('mixes. — Horses of lymphatic, or sluggish, temperament are pre- 

•disposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in 

such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. 

Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an 

attack. 

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, 
and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lame- 
ness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling 
gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until 
it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the 
animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, 
and the temperature may reach 106° F. The bowels early become 
constipated and the urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the 
increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same 
length of time; the fever then abates: the swelling recedes and be- 
comes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling 
leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and 
the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the 
inguinal lymphatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and 
pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb be- 
comes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated 
with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis. 

Treatment. — The parts should be bathed freely and frequently with 
water as hoi as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar 
ami water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassa 
for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot 
water for the first day. Afterwards, the leg may be dried with a 
woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Inter- 
nally, administer artificial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three 
times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, 
if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a re- 
mark-able change within twenty-four hours. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., 
Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 

[Revised in 1903 by the author.] 

We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, 
and hence all diseases and injuries which seriously interfere with 
vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should 
they prove permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to 
a considerable extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the sad- 
dle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially 
impaired vision, he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in 
a wrong place, and when he shies or avoids objects which are com- 
monplace or familiar. When we add to this that certain diseases of 
the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitu- 
ally transmitted from parent to offspring, we can realize still more 
fully the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of 
beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must 
always add a high value to our equine friends and servants. 

THE EYEBALL. 

A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with 
our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essen- 
tial to the clear understanding of what is to follow. 

The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its 
posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous 
membrane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more 
delicate friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and 
pigment cells (the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the ex- 
tremely delicate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the 
retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward 
from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thus 
forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the 
sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect translucency from 
which it has derived the name of transparent cornea. This trans- 
parent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces, 
and it is to the condition of these and their condensation and com- 
pression that the translucency is largely due. This may be shown 
by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just been 
killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become 

251 



252 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

clouded over with a whitish blue opacity, and this -will remain until 
the compression is interrupted. The .interior of the eye contains 
three transparent media for the refraction of the rays of light on 
their way from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the 
anterior one (aqueous humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous 
humor) is semisolid, and the intermediate one (crystalline lens) is 
solid. . The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly 
to the portion of the eye covered by the transparent cornea. It is, 
however, divided lino two chambers, anterior and posterior, by the 
iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the center (the pupil), and 
which may be looked on as in some sense a projection inward of the 
vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point 
where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with the 
cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abun- 
dance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular 
fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer 
border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid, 
and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The 
action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers 
dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view, 
while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the rays 
of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest 
diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several 
minute black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving 
to some extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing 
the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These 
pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are 
often mistaken for the products of disease or injury, in place of the 
normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are. 
They may, like all other parts, become the seat of disease, but so long 
as they and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, without any tints 
of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy. 

The vitreous or semisolid refracting medium occupies the posterior 
part of the eye — the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and 
retina — and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of 
an i.'<x<r, and a power of refraction of the light rays correspondingly 
greater than the aqueous humor. 

The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its 
convexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depres- 
sion in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corresponds 
to the opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering 
(capsule) and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory 
ligament) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the 
sclerotic at the point of junction of the choroid and iris. This liga- 
ment is, in its turn, furnished with radiating muscular fibers, which 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 253 

change the form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with 
equal clearness objects at a distance or close by. 

Another point which strikes the observer of the horse's eye is that 
in the darkness a bright bluish tinge is reflected from the widely 
dilated pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment 
in the choroid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables 
the animal to see and advance with security in darkness where the 
human eye would be of little use. The lower part of the cavity 
of the horse's eye, into which the dazzling rays fall from the sky, 
is furnished with an intensely black lining, by which the rays 
penetrating the inner nervous layer are instantly absorbed. 

MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 

These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique and one re- 
tractor. The straight muscles pass from the depth of the orbit 
forward on the inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball, 
and are fixed to the anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat, 
so that in contracting singly they respectively turn the eye inward, 
outward, upward, and downward. When all act together they draw 
the eyeball deeply into its socket. The retractor muscle also consists 
of four muscular slips, repeating the straight muscles on a smaller 
scale, but as they are only attached on the back part of the eyeball 
they are less adapted to roll the eye than to draw it down into its 
socket. The two oblique muscles rotate the eye on its own axis, the 
upper one turning its outer surface upward and inward, and the 
lower one turning it downward and inward. 

THE HAW (THE WINKING CARTILAGE, OR CARTILAGO NICTITANS). 

This is a structure, which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in 
the eye of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in remov- 
ing foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the 
horse, of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and pos- 
teriorly where it is intimately connected with the muscles of the eye- 
ball and the fatty material around them, and expanded and flattened 
anteriorly where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, molded 
on the lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally it is cov- 
ered by the mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and extends 
over the front of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the 
edge of this cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane 
at the inner angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into 
the orbit the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over 
it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion 
of the cartilage, so as to cover the eye, may be induced in the healthy 
eye by pressing the finger and thumb on the upper and lower lids, so 
as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the socket. When foreign 



254 DISEASES OE Till. HORSEi 

bodies, such as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants have fallen on 
the eyeball or eyelids, it is similarly projected to push them off, their 
expulsion being further favored by a profuse flow of tears. 

This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful inflammations of the 
eye, and to a very marked degree in lockjaw, when the spasm of the 
muscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and pro- 
jects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice 
of cutting off this apparatus, whenever it is projected, necessitates 
this explanation which, it is hoped, may save to many a faithful serv- 
ant a most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane 
may become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge 
is thin and even, and its surface smooth and regular, the mere fact of 
its projection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence 
of disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is 
usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part 
of the eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use 
of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself, 
see " Encephaloid cancer." 

LACHRYMAL APPARATUS. 

This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, 
second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous 
tears into the cavity # of the nose. 

The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the 
tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are 
there directed by a small conical papilla (lachrymal caruncle) into 
two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lachrymal) to a small 
pouch (lachrymal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones 
of the face into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on 
(he floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the 
skin which lines the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the 
nose. In the ass and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead 
of the floor of the nose, but still close to the external opening. 

EXAMINATION OE THE EYE. 

To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are 
given for the examination of the eye: The eye, and to a certain extent 
the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view 
by gently parting the eyelids with the thumb and forefinger pressed 
on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes 
the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner pari 
of the eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure 
this may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of 
the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the 
left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 255 

pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In 
cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid 
further than is possible by the above means, the upper lid may be 
drawn down by the eyelashes with the one hand and then everted 
over the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid 
flat against the middle of the lid. Where the interior of the eye must 
be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or 
under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such 
circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken 
indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be 
placed so that the light shall fall on the eye from the front and side. 
Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive 
the reflected rays from the c*rnea, the front of the lens and the back, 
and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, opacity or lack of 
transparency. The examination can be made much more satisfactory 
by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by 
a lamp placed forward and outward from the eye which is to be exam- 
ined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be 
resolved by moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be 
passed in succession over the whole surface of the transparent cornea 
and of the crystalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen, 
the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye ; 
a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens ; 
and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens. 

So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they 
will be clear and perfect in outline, but as soon as one strikes on an 
area of opacity it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus, 
if the large upright image becomes hazy and imperfect over a partic- 
ular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease 
and opacity. Should the large image remain clear, but the small 
upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indi- 
cates opacity on the front of the 'capsule of the lens. If both upright 
images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a 
given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in 
the posterior part of its capsule. 

If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the 
deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the eyelids may be rubbed 
with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found 
widely dilated. 

DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 

Congenital disorders. — Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are 
congenital, as division of an eyelid in two, after the manner of hare- 
lip, abnormally small opening between the lids, often connected with 
imperfect development of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion. 



25() DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and 
then bringing them together, as in torn lids. The Last two, if reme- 
diable at all, require separation by the knife, and subsequent treat- 
ment with a cooling astringent of eyewash. 

Nervous disorders. — Spasm of eyelids may be owing to consti- 
tutional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects. 
chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in the eye, to wounds or inflammation 
of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to 
local irritation, it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few 
drops of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine into the eye, when the true 
cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitu- 
tional disease must be treated according to its nature. 

Drooping , yelids, or ptosis. — This is usually present in the upper 
lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a 
symptom of paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear, 
lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and 
inactive, and even the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy. 
If the same condition exists on both sides, there is difficult snuffling 
breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspira- 
tion, and all food is taken in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In 
both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during masti- 
cation. This paralysis is a frequent result of injury, by a poke, to 
the seventh nerve, as it passes over the back of the lower jaw. In 
some cases the paralysis is confined to the lid, the injury having been 
sustained by the muscles which raise it, or by the supraorbital nerve 
which emerges from the bone just above the eye. Such injury to the 
nerve may have resulted from fracture of the orbital process of the 
frontal bone above the eyeball. 

The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter 
muscle, which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid, 
usually a result of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run 
a slow course with chronic thickening of the lid. 

The paralysis due to the poke may be often remedied, first, by the 
removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn be- 
neath the ear and kept in place by a bandage; second, when all in- 
flammation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing 
it daily with a mixture in equal proportions of olive oil and strong 
aqua ammonia. Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months 
before complete recovery ensues. 

In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be 
applied to that part. 

Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of 
iodine, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical strip of the skin 
from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together. 



PLAT K XIX 




Theoretical Sectionofthe Horse's Eye. 
a,, Optic nerve; b, Sclerotic; c, Choroid; d, Reti/ia. ; e, Cornea; flris,- 
g,h, Ciliury circle, (orligament ) and processes given off by the choroid, 
though represented as isolated from it, in order to indicate their limits 
more dearly; i, Insertion of the- ciliary processes on the crystalline lens ; 
?talline lens, k, Crystalline capsule; L,Vitreous body; nui Anterior- 
and posterior chambers; c '/'/'■■ dication of the membran* 

the aqueous humour; p,p,Tarsi; q,q, Fibrous membrane of the eyelids; 
j;Elevator muscle of the upper eyelid; s,s, Orbicularis ntn.sc/e of the 
eyelids, t,t;Skin oft fie eyelids; a, Conjunctiva; v, Epidermic layer of 
this membrane covering the Cornea; cPosteri muscle j 

y, Superior rectus muscle ; k, Inferior rectus muscle j w Fib) 
sheath of the orbit (or orbital me/nbrar, 



Ceo. Mai s deLalter I > Arbova 






DIAGRAMMATIC VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH EYE. 



DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 257 

INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. 

The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the 
eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease some- 
times starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to 
them, it deserves independent mention. 

Among the causes may be named : Exposure to drafts of cold air, 
or to cold rain or snow storms; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies, 
and other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or 
club; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during 
the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when 
thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as 
of erysipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as espe- 
cially prevalent among horses kept on low marshy pastures. Finally, 
the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of 
the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant chemical powders, 
liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factory, chlorine, 
strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of combustion, etc.) 
may start the inflammation. The eyelids often undergo extreme 
inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettlerash, sur- 
feit) and in the general inflammatory dropsy known as purpura 
hemorrhagica. 

The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflam- 
mations due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury, 
mechanical or chemical; and (3) such as are due to inoculation with 
infecting material. 

(1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished 
by the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low, damp 
pasture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome food, or the pres- 
ence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general doughy swellings 
of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened; it 
may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be 
seen. If the lid can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that 
is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines 
of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow 
of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation 
and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes 
more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper 
and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This 
gradually decreases to the natural amount, and the redness and con- 
gested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening, 
and stiffness of the lids may continue for a length of time. There 
may be more or less fever according to the violence of the inflamma- 
tion, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the 
eye or of other vital organ this is usually moderate. 
II. Doe. 795, ."•)-:_> 17 



258 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar 
of lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonfuls, rain water — boiled and 
cooled — 1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion, 
and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the 
two >ides. If the mucous membrane lining of the lids is the seat of 
little red granular elevations, a drop of solution of 2 grains of nitrate 
of silver in an otmce of distilled water should be applied with the soft 
end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. The 
patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faulty 
food, exposure, etc.) as may have caused or aggravated the disease, 
and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from 
a manger high enough to favor the return of blood from the head, 
and should be kept from work, especially in a tight collar which 
would prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. His diet 
should be laxative and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots, 
turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and any costiveness should 
be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1£ pints). In 
cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel 
bandages to the limbs, but heat should never be sought at the expense 
of pure air. 

(2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a noninfective kind 
a careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first 
step must be their removal with a pair of blunt forceps or the point 
of a lead pencil. Subsequent treatment will be in the main the local 
treatment advised above. 

(3) In case of infective inflammation there will often be found a 
prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case 
the inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A 
round or conical swelling around an insect bite is especially character- 
istic. A snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two 
teeth and by the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Ery- 
sipelas is attended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids 
and causing the mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of 
the eyelid (chemosis). This is characterized by a bright, uniform. 
rosy red, disappearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but 
with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation and 
less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Lit- 
tle vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without 
any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended 
by high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. An- 
thrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted by a blis- 
ter, with Moody serous contents, which tends to burst and dry up 
into a slough, while the surrounding parts become involved in the 
same way. Or it may show as a diffuse dropsical swelling, with less 
of the hard central sloughing nodule, but, like that, tending to spread 



DISEASES OP THE EYELIDS. 259 

quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if 
white, assume a dusky brown or 3'ellowish brown hue, which is 
largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color by reason 
of extravasation of blood. There appears early great constitutional 
disturbance, with much prostration and weakness and generalized 
anthrax symptoms. 

Treatment. — The treatment of these will vary according to the 
severity. Insect bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts 
of glycerin and aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent solution of carbolic- 
acid in water. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and 
the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water. 
Or alcohol may be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size 
of the animal. In erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture 
of muriate of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodine in an 
ounce of carbolic acid, and one-half an ounce of tincture of muriate of 
iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the 
swelling should be painted with tincture of iodine, or of the mixture 
of iodine and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the 
tincture of iodine injected into the swelling with a hypodermic 
syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a 
sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally, 
iodide of potassium may be given in doses of 2 drams thrice a day, or 
tincture of the muriate of iron every four hours. 

STY, OR FURUNCLE (BOIL) OF THE EYELID. » 

This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the forma- 
tion of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural 
tissue of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near 
the margin of the lid,which suppurates and bursts in four or five days. 
Its course may be hastened by a poultice of camomile flowers, to 
which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole 
applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open 
after having become yellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet, 
the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid. 

ENTROPION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID. 

These are respectively caused by wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other 
causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of 
the lid and of the skin on the outside; also of tumors, skin diseases, 
or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid. 
As a rule, they require a surgical operation, with removal of an ellip- 
tical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case may be, but 
which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon. 



260 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

TRICHIASIS. 

This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the 
front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scis- 
sors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root with a 
pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes arc more numer- 
ous, the treatment may be as for entropion, by excising an elliptical 
portion of skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges 
together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point, 

WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. 

The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, 
which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the 
surface layers of the skin. If small, these may be snipped off with 
scissors or tied around the neck with a stout waxed thread and left to 
drop off, the destruction being completed, if necessary, by the daily 
application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any 
unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread, the 
wart may still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the 
caustic thoroughly applied day by day. 

A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is 
best removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber 
band, or if too broad for this it may be transfixed through its base by 
a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two 
and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still 
broader, the armed needle may be carried through the base of the 
tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moder- 
ately sized sections. 

In gray and in white horses black pigmentary tumors (melanotic) 
are common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are 
to be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the 
horse these do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed, 
but at times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then 
(hey tend to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it 
may be. fatal effect. 

Encysted, honeylike (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of 
the lids all require removal with the knife. 

TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. 

The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the 
teeth, or by getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the 
point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wife fences, and 
on other pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as 
promptly as possible, so as to secure union without the formation of 
matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Greai care 
is necessary to brine the two edges together evenly without twisting 



DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. 261 

or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a 
series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals 
of not over a third of an inch, and held together by a thread twisted 
around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely 
from pin to pin in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the 
wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be cut off 
with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak 
solution of carbolic acid. 

TUMOR OF THE HAW, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE. 

Though cruelly excised for alleged " hooks,' 1 when itself perfectly 
healthy in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into 
its socket, the haw may. like other bodily structures, be itself the seat 
of actual disease. The pigmentary black tumors of white horses and 
soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to 
it from the eyeball or eyelids; hairs have been found growing from its 
surface; and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in 
common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflamma- 
tions are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures 
of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. 
The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the 
haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple pro- 
jection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed 
apart with the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the 
ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the 
swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in 
the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass 
formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal 
having been thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids 
apart while the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and care- 
fully dissects it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then 
covered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external 
ophthalmia. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE. 

The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of exter- 
nal inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease 
of the lachrymal apparatus which interferes with the normal prog- 
ress of the tears to the nose. Hence, in all cases when this symptom 
is not attended by special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well 
to examine the lachrymal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of 
the lachrymal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its 
anterior outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry muco-puru- 
lent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This 
implies an inflammation of the canal, which may be helped by occa- 



262 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

sional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the application 
of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of 
wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water 
\apor may be secured. 

The two lachrymal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye, 
may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in 
connection with eversion of the lower lid, or by reason of their con- 
striction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lachrymal 
sac, into which the lachrymal ducts open, may fail to discharge its 
contents by reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the 
nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle 
of the eye. The duct leading from the sac to the nose may be com- 
pressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in 
disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased 
teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities). 

The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine 
silver probe passed down to the lachrymal sac, and any existing 
inflammation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steam- 
ing mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or Wet cloths over the face, 
and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the injection of 
similar liquids into the lachrymal canal from its nasal opening. The 
ordinary eyewash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected 
after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the 
bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands 
when, if the canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered 

Useful. 

EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA. OK CONJUNCTIVITIS. 

In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vas- 
cular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the 
ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lachrymal apparatuses usually the 
most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, 
and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it consti- 
tutes a phase of external ophthalmia which demands a special notice. 
These have accordingly been already treated of. 

Causes. — The causes of external ophthalmia are mainly those that 
act locally — blows with whips, clubs, and tw T igs, the presence of for- 
eign bodies like hay seed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of 
plants, flies attracted by the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the 
bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the eye, 
smoke, ammonia rising from the excretions, irritant emanations from 
drying marshes, etc. Road dust containing infecting microbes is a 
common factor. A very dr}^ air is alleged to act injuriously by drying 
the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust : and the 
undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 263 

stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, is undoubtedly injurious. 
The unprotected exposure of the eyes to sunshine through the use of 
a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of 
the horse in a very dark stall from which it is habitually led into the 
glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white 
limestone dust, must be set down among the locally acting causes. 
But exposed to cold and wet, to wet and snow storms, to cold drafts 
and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the 
general disorder which they produce affecting the eye, if that happens 
to be the weakest and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has 
been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases, 
or excess of light. Again, external ophthalmia is a constant con- 
comitant of inflammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous 
membranes, as those of the nose and throat. Hence the red, watery 
eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles, 
nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection 
of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the pri- 
mary and predominating disease. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, 
redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the 
lids — it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching red- 
ness, or it may be a deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood — and a 
bluish opacity of the cornea, which is normally clear and translucent. 
But except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of 
blood, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacit}^ is con- 
fined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aque- 
ous humor behind is seen to, be still clear and limpid. The fever is 
always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and only runs high in 
the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball retracted, 
and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but this 
is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as 
shown by the comparatively widely dilated pupil. In internal oph- 
thalmia, on the contrary, the narrow contracted pupil is the measure 
of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive 
optic nerve (retina) and choroid. 

If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only 
is that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleec) r 
cloud, but too often blood vessels begin to extend from the adjacent 
vascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that 
portion of the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the 
wound has been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior 
layers of the cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration that may pene- 
trate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if 
filled up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the 
transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes 



264 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

a yellowish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable 
Lo extend as an ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of 
the cornea at that point (staphyloma). This inflammation of the con- 
junctiva may be simply catarrhal, with profuse muco-purulent dis- 
charge: it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute 
reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane 
(diphtheria). 

Treatment.— Txi treating external ophthalmia the first object is the 
removal of the cause. Remove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other for- 
eign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of 
ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads, 
and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attend- 
ant cloud of dust; remove from pasture and feed from a rack which 
is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to 
favor the accumulation of blood in the head; avoid equally excess of 
light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness 
from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains 
and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of 
the adjacent mucous membranes or skin. If the irritant has been of a 
caustic nature, remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with 
tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of ^gg, 
or a glass filled with the liquid may be inverted over the eye so that 
its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the suffering is 
very severe, a lotion with a few grains of extract of belladonna or of 
morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, or if it is available, 
a few drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into 
the eye. 

In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a 
laxative, such as 2 tablespoonfuls of Glauber's salts daily, and if the 
fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As 
local applications astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30 
grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be ap- 
plied constantly on a cloth, as advised under " Inflammation of the 
eyelids.'* In the absence of anything better, cold water may serve 
every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar. 
Eats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of 
suggesting agents that may We used with good effect, salt and sulphate 
ol* soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of 
zinc, oi' 7 grains of nitrate of silver may lie added to a quart of dis- 
tilled water, and will be found especially applicable in granular con- 
junctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides 
blister ( 1 part of Spanish fly to I parts lard) may be rubbed on the 
side of the face 3 inches below the eye. and washed off next morning 
with soapsuds ami oiled daily till the scabs are dropped. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 265 

WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. 

As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or hazi- 
ness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal 
that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of 
3 grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be 
applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is 
comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old thick scar 
following an ulcer, nor with an opacity having red blood vessels 
running across it. 

ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. 

These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the 
strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and 
sulphate of iron, one-fourth ounce daily, may improve the general 
health and increase the reparatory power. 

INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (iRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS). 

Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina — the inner, 
vascular, and nervous coats of the eye — occur to a certain extent inde- 
pendently of each other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other, 
and, as the symptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for 
our present purposes to treat the three as one disease. 

Causes. — The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the 
external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more suscep- 
tible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the 
penetration of foreign bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron, 
etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the 
glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse 
of the overdraw checkrein, vivid lightning flashes, drafts of cold, 
damp air; above all, when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold 
rain and snow storms, swimming cold rivers; also certain general 
diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the 
digestive organs, may become complicated by this affection. From 
the close relation between the brain and eye— alike in the blood ves- 
sels and nerves — disorders of the first lead to affections of the second, 
and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to which the 
jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last 
agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so long as dentition 
is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its 
dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If 
the attack is due to direct physical injury, the inflammation of the 
eyelids and superficial structures may be quite as marked as that of the 
interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as 
a complication of some distant disease, the affection may be largely 



2f)6 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and ten- 
derness of the superficial structures will In* less marked. When the 
external coats thus comparatively escape the extreme anterior edge of 
the white, or sclerotic, coat where it overlaps the border of the trans- 
parent cornea is in a measure free from congestion, and. in the absence 
of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring around the 
cornea. This is partly due to the fact that a series of arteries (cili- 
ary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short 
distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a marked 
difference in color between the general sclerotic occupied between 
these, congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they are 
absent. Unfortunately, the pigment is often so abundant in the 
anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal 
ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to a zone around 
the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze 
rather than a deep fleecy white. In consequence it becomes possible 
to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor and the 
condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually turbid, 
and has numerous yellowish white flakes floating on its substance 
or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut oft' the 
view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of 
the iris has lost its natural, clear, dark luster, which is replaced by 
a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in 
proportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflammation is 
confined to the choroid. The amount of flocculent deposit in the 
chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflamma- 
tion of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ophthal- 
mia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this 
account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is 
seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in an 
obscured stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effu- 
sion has overfilled the globe of the eye. and by pressure on the retina 
has paralyzed it, or w 7 hen the exudation into the substance of the 
retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may 
l»e dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular ovoid outline 
and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it has con- 
tracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exu- 
dations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye 
that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be 
indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is apt to 
result. Willi such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavily clouded 
or entirely lost; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be 
approached to the eve without the animal becoming conscious of it 
until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the affected side is 
gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 267 

no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the contracted pupil 
become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation, 
and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflamma- 
tions pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the 
cavity of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish white stratum 
below. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens 
or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which 
in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white fleecy mass behind 
a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recog- 
nized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique 
side light, as described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts 
that appear as a simple haze or indefinite fleecy cloud are usually on 
the capsule (capsular) , while those that show a radiating arrangement 
are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate 
follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment 
on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent 
tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent 
to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so contracted that it is 
impossible to see the lens, it may be dilated by applying to the front 
of the eye with a feather some drops of a solution of 4 grains of 
atropia in an ounce of water. 

Treatment. — The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace, 
first, the removal of all existing causes or sources of aggravation of 
the disease, which need not be here repeated. Special care to protect 
the patient against cold, wet, strong light, and active exertion must, 
however, be insisted on. A dark stall and a cloth hung over the eye 
are important, while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are 
equally demanded. If the patient is strong and vigorous, a dose of 
4 drams of Barbados aloes may be given, and, if there is any reason 
to suspect a rheumatic origin, one-half a dram powdered colchicum 
and one-half ounce salicylate of soda may be given daily. Locally, 
the astringent lotions advised for external ophthalmia may be resorted 
to, especially when the superficial inflammation is well marked. More 
important, however, is to instill into the eye, a few drops at a time, a 
solution of 4 grains of atropia in 1 ounce of distilled water. This may 
be effected with the aid of a soft feather, and may be repeated at inter- 
vals of ten minutes until the pupil is widely dilated. As the horse 
is to be kept in a dark stall, the consequent admission of light will be 
harmless, and the dilation of the pupil prevents adhesion between the 
iris and lens, relieves the constant tension of the eye in the effort to 
adapt the pupil to the light, and solicits the contraction of the blood 
vessels of the eye and the lessening of congestion, exudation, and in- 
traocular pressure. Should atropia not agree with the case, it may be 
replaced by morphia (same strength) or cocaine in 4 per cent solution. 
Another local measure is a blister, which can usually be applied to 



268 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

advantage on the side of the nose or beneath the ear. Spanish flies 
may be used as for external ophthalmia. In very severe eases the 
parts beneath the eve may be shaved and three or four leeches applied. 
Setons are sometimes beneficial, and even puncture of the eyeball, but 

these should be reserved for professional hands. 

The diet throughout should he easily digestible and moderate in 
quantity — bran mash, middlings, grass, steamed hay, etc. 

Even after the active inflammation has subsided the atropia lotion 
should be continued for some weeks to keep the eye in a state of rest 
in its still weak and irritable condition, and during this period the 
patient should be kept in semidarkness. or taken out only with a dark 
shade over the eye. For the same reason heavy drafts and rapid 
paces, which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully 
avoided. 

i;:.< l Hl!i:.\T ophthalmia (periodic ophthalmia, or moonbltndness). 

This is an inflammatory affection of the interior of the eye, inti- 
mately related to certain soils, climates, and systems, showing a strong 
tendency to recur again and again, and usually ending in blindness 
from cataract or other serious injury. 

Causes. — Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On 
damp clays and marshy grounds, on the frequently overflowed river 
bottoms and deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately sub- 
merged and exposed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many 
instances in France (Reynal), Belgium, Alsace (Zundel, Milten- 
berger), Germany, and England it has very largely decreased under 
land drainage and improved methods of culture. Other influences. 
more or less associated with such soil, are potent causative factors. 
Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet climate, so constantly associated with 
wet lands, are universally charged with causing the disease. These 
act on the animal body to produce a lymphatic constitution with an 
excess of connective tissue, bones, and muscles of coarse open texture, 
thick skins and gummy legs covered with a profusion of long hair. 
Hence the heavy horses of Belgium and southwestern France have suf- 
fered severely from the affection, while high dry lands adjacent, like 
Catalonia, in Spain, and Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc, in 
France, have in the main escaped. 

The rank aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but 
these again are calculated to undermine the character of the nervous 
and sanguineous temperament, and to superinduce the Lymphatic. 
Other foods act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the 
digestive organ.-, thus impairing the general health: hence in any ani- 
mal predisposed to this disease, heating, starchy foods, such as maize, 
wheat, and buckwheat, are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely 
charged that beans, pease, vetches, and other Leguminosse are danger- 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 269 

ous, but a fuller inquiry contradicts this. If these are well grown 
they invigorate and fortify the system, while, like any other fodder, 
if grown rank, aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles, they 
tend to lower the health and open the way for the disease. 

The period of dentition and training is a fertile exciting cause, for 
though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet 
the great majority of victims are from two to six years old, and if a 
horse escapes the affection till after six there is a reasonable hope that 
he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the 
eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and 
collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all 
combine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct 
injuries by bridle, whip, or hay seeds are not without their influence. 
In the same way local irritants, like dust, severe rain and snow 
storms, smoke, and acrid vapors are contributing causes. 

It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to 
produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a 
microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in 
the marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp 
soils which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been 
(j noted in support of this doctrine, as also the fact that the malady is 
always more prevalent ewteris paribus in basins surounded by hills 
where the air is still and such products are concentrated, and that a 
forest or simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the area 
of its prevalence. Another argument for the same view is found in 
the fact that on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady 
has become extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a 
suitable nidus for the growth of the germ. But on these sewage 
farms a fresh crop may be cut every fortnight, and the product is 
precisely that aqueous material which contributes to a lymphatic 
structure and a low tone of health. The presence in the system of a 
definite germ has not yet been proven, and in the present state of our 
knowledge we are only warranted in charging the disease to the 
deleterious emanations from the marshy soil in which bacterial fer- 
ments are constantly producing them. 

Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymphatic constitu- 
tion is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recurring 
ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and 
female. The tendency appears to be stronger, however, if either 
parent has already suffered. Thus a mare may have borne a number 
of sound foals, and then fallen a victim to this malady, and all foals 
subsequently borne have likewise suffered. 80 with the stallion. 
Reynal even quotes the appearance of the disease in alternate gen- 
erations, the stallion offspring of blind parents remaining sound 
through life and yet producing foals which furnish numerous victims 



270 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of recurrent ophthalmia. On the contrary, the offspring of diseased 
parents removed to high, dry regions and furnished with wholesome, 
nourishing rations will nearly all escape. Hence the dealers take 
colts that are still sound or have had but one attack from the affected 
low Pyrenees (France) to the unaffected Catalonia (Spain), with 
confidence that they will escape, and from the Jura Valley to Dau- 
phiny with the same result. 

Yet the hereditary taint is so strong and pernicious that intelligent 
horsemen everywhere refuse to breed from either horse or mare that 
has once suffered from recurrent ophthalmia, and the French Govern- 
ment studs not only reject all unsound stallions, but refuse service to 
any mare which has suffered with her eyes. It is this avoidance of 
the hereditary predisposition more than anything else that has 
reduced the formerly wide prevalence of this disease in the European 
countries generally. A consideration for the future of our horses 
would demand the disuse of all sires that are unlicensed, and the 
refusal of a license to any sire which has suffered from this or any 
other communicable constitutional disease. 

Other contributing causes deserve passing mention. Unwholesome 
food and a faulty method of feeding undoubtedly predisposes to the 
disease, and in the same district the carefully fed will escape in far 
larger proportion than the badly fed. But it is so with every other 
condition which undermines the general health. The presence of 
worms in the intestines, overwork, and debilitating diseases and 
causes of every kind weaken the vitality and lay the system more 
open to attack. Thierry long ago showed that the improvement of 
close, low, dark, damp stables, where the disease had previously pre- 
vailed, practically banished this affection. Whatever contributes to 
strength and vigor is protective; whatever contributes to weakness 
and poor health is provocative of the disease in the predisposed 
subject. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to the severity of the 
attack. In some cases there is marked fever, and in some slighter 
cases this may be almost altogether wanting, but there is always a 
lack of vigor and energy, bespeaking general disorder. The local 
symptoms are in the main those of internal ophthalmia, with, in many 
cases, an increased hardness of the eyeball from effusion into its 
cavity. The contracted pupil does not expand much in darkness, nor 
even under the action of belladonna. Opacity advances from the 
margin, over a part or whole of the cornea, but so long as it is trans- 
parent there may be seen the turbid, aqueous humor with or without 
flocculi, the dingy iris robbed of its clear black aspect, the slightly 
clouded lens and a greenish yellow reflection from the depth of the 
eye. From the fifth to the seventh day the flocculi precipitate in the 
lower part of the chamber, exposing more clearly the iris and lens, 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 271 

and absorption commences, so that the eye may be cleared up in ten or 
fifteen days. 

The characteristic of the disease is, however, its recurrence again 
and again in the same rye until blindness results. The attacks may 
follow each other at intervals of a month, more or less, but they show 
no relation to any particular phase of the moon as might be inferred 
from the familiar name, but are determined rather by the weather, 
the health, the food, or by some periodicity of the system. From five 
to seven attacks usually result in blindness, and then the second eye is 
liable to be attacked until it also is ruined. 

In the intervals between the attacks some remaining symptoms 
betray the condition, and these become more marked after each suc- 
cessive access of disease. Even after the first attack there is a bluish 
ring round the margin of the transparent cornea. The eye seems 
smaller than the other, at first because it is retracted in its socket, and 
often after several attacks because of actual shrinkage (atrophy). 
The upper eyelid, in place of presenting a uniform, continuous arch, 
has about one-third from its inner angle an abrupt bend, caused by 
the contraction of the levator muscle. The front of the iris has 
exchanged some of its dark, clear brilliancy for a lusterless yellow, 
and the depth of the eye presents more or less of the greenish yellow 
shade. The pupil remains a little contracted, except in advanced and 
aggravated cases, when, with opaque lens, it is widely dilated. If one 
eye only has suffered, as is common, the contrast in these respects with 
the sound eye is all the more characteristic. Another feature is the 
erect, attentive carriage of the ear, to compensate to some extent for 
the waning vision. 

The attacks vary greatly in severity in different cases, but the recur- 
rence is characteristic, and all alike lead to cataract and intraocular 
effusion, with pressure on the retina and abolition of sight. 

Pre re nt ion. — The prevention of this disease is the great object to 
be aimed at, and this demands the most careful breeding, feeding, 
housing, and general management, as indicated under k * Causes." Much 
can also be done by migration to a high, dry location, but for this and 
malarious affections the improvement of the land by drainage and 
good cultivation should be the final aim. 

Treatment is not satisfactory, but is largely the same as for com- 
mon internal ophthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are benefited 
by scruple doses of powdered colchicum and 2-dram doses of salicylate 
of soda twice a day. In other cases, with marked hardness of the 
globe of the eye from intraocular effusion, aseptic puncture of the 
eye, or even the excision of a portion of the iris, has helped. During 
recovery a course of tonics (2 drams oxide of iron, 10 grains mix 
vomica, and 1 ounce sulphate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate 
the system and help to ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to 



272 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

knocking out the wolf teeth and cutting out the haw can only be con- 
demned. The temporary recovery would take place in one or two 

weeks, though no such thing had been done, and the breaking of a 
small tooth, leaving its fang in the jaw, only increases the irritation. 

CATARACT. 

The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent 
type, may be recognized as described under the first of these diseases. 
Its offensive appearance may be obviated by extraction or depression 
of the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly 
refracted, perfect vision would not be restored, and the animal would 
be liable to prove an inveterate shyer. If perfect blindness continued 
by reason of pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result. 

PALSY OF THE NERVE OF SIGHT, OK AMAUROSIS. 

Causes. — The causes of this affection are tumors or other disease 
of the brain implicating the roots of the optic nerve, injury to the 
nerve between the brain and eye, and inflammation of the optic nerve 
within the eye (retina), or undue pressure on the same from dropsical 
or inflammatory effusion. It may also occur from overloaded stom- 
ach, from a profuse bleeding, and even from the pressure of the 
gravid womb in gestation. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are wide dilatation of the pupils, so as 
to expose fully the interior of the globe, the expansion remaining the 
same in light and darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the 
light have the pupils suddenly contract, and then dilate and contract 
alternately until they adapt themselves to the amount of light. The 
horse, does not swerve when a feint to strike is made unless the hand 
causes a current of air. The ears are held erect and turn quickly 
toward any noise, and the horse steps high to avoid stumbling over 
objects which it can not see. 

Treatment is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some 
removable cause, like congested brain, foaded stomach, or gravid 
womb. When recovery does not follow the termination of these con- 
ditions, apply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of 
mix vomica daily. 

TUMORS OF THE EYEBALL. 

A variety of tumors attack the eyeball — dermoid, papillary, fatty, 
cystic, and melanotic, — but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is 
encephaloid cancer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the 
eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and is only to be remedied, if at all. 
by early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the 
les> dangerous tumors by it> softness, friability, and great vascularity, 
bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure. 



DISEASES OF THE EYE. 273 

STAPHYLOMA. 

This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point 
by the saccular yielding and distention of its coats, and it may be 
either transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris 
has become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole struc- 
ture has become filled with blood vessels. In the first form the bulg- 
ing cornea is attenuated; in the last it may be thickened. The best 
treatment is by excision of a portion of the rise so as to relieve the 
intraocular pressure. 

PARASITES IN THE EYE. 

Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflamma- 
tion of the lids. 

FUaria palpebralis is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which 
inhabits the lachrymal duct and the underside of the eyelids and haw 
in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in 
treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, then treat 
as for external inflammation. 

FUaria equina is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which I 
have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches 
has been reported). It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant 
active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is fre- 
quently exhibited as a " snake in the eye." It is found also in other 
internal cavities of the horse, to which it undoubtedly makes its way 
from the food, and especially the water swallowed, and its prevention 
is therefore to be sought mainly in the supply of pure water from 
closed, deep wells. When present in the eye it causes inflammation 
and has to be removed through an incision made with the lancet in 
the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the point of the 
instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury to the iris. 
Then apply cold water or astringent antiseptic lotions. 

FUaria conjunctives, resembling FUaria equina very much in size 
and general appearance, is another roundworm which has been found 
in the eye of the horse. 

The echinococcus, the cystic, or larval, stage of the echinococcus 
tapeworm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse, and a 
cysticercus (Cysticercus fistularis?) is also reported. 
H. Doe. 795. 59-2 18 



LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. 

By A. LlAUTABD, M. I>., V. M„ 
Principal of the American I 'clcriininj Collate, Neio York. 

[Revised in 1903 by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] 

It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse, 
camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical 
value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and con- 
sequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally re- 
solves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special 
portion of their organism which controls their function of locomo- 
tion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine 
family, the most numerous and valuable of all the beasts of burden, 
and it naturally follows that with the horse for a subject of dis- 
cussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry will, bv an 
easy lapse, become an inquest into the condition and efficiency of his 
power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a large 
amount of abstract interest in the study of that endowment of the 
animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at 
will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may 
incline him; but how much greater the interest that attaches to the 
subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and in- 
cludes within its purview the, various related topics which belong to 
the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire 
round of scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a 
subject for medical and surgical consideration — in a word, of actual 
disease and its treatment! It is not surprising that the intricate 
and complicated apparatus of locomotion, with its symmetry and 
harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details 
and adjuncts, should, by students of creative design and attentive 
observers of nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations, 
be admiringly denominated a living machine. 

The horse in a state of domesticity is of all the animal tribe the 
largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dan- 
gers which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his expo- 
sure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking 
up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in 
danger of incurring injuries which for their repair may demand the 
best skill of the veterinary practitioner. And this is true not alone of 
casualties which belong to the class of external and traumatic cases, 
but includes as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which 
274 



LAMENESS. 275 

may result in lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and 
obscure of all in their nature and effects. 

The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human 
life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the 
world to justify any indifference to his needs and physical comfort 
or neglect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for 
usefulness. In entering somewhat largely, therefore, upon a review 
of the subject, and treating in detail of the causes, the symptoms, the 
progress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness 
in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no word of 
apology or justification. The subject explains and justifies itself, 
and of its own vindication and illustration, if any are needed. 

The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two prin- 
cipal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological 
terminology as passive and active, the muscles performing the active 
and the bones the passive portion of the movement. The necessary 
connection between the cooperating parts of the organism is effected 
by means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached to the 
bone at certain determinate points on the surface of the latter. 
These points of attachment appear sometimes as an eminence, some- 
times a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a 
mere roughness, but each perfectly fulfilling its purpose; while the 
necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the 
long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every 
motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the 
muscles, which, as it acts upon the bony levers, gives rise to a move- 
ment of extension or flexion, abduction or adduction, rotation or cir- 
cumduction. The movement of abduction is that which passes from 
and that of adduction that which passes toward the median line, or 
the center of the body. The movement of flexion and extension are 
too well understood to need defining. It is the combination and 
rapid alternations of these movements which produce the different 
postures and various gaits of the living animal, and it is their inter- 
ruption and derangement, from whatsoever cause, which constitute 
the pathological condition of lameness. 

A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, how- 
ever, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions 
pertaining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given, 
containing only the briefest hint of matters which, though not neces- 
sarily in their ultimate scientific minutia*, must be clearly compre- 
hended in order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory view of the 
theme as a practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed, 
applied, and utilized. 

It was the great Bacon who wrote : " The human body may be 
compared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical 



276 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

instrument of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable 
to derangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to 
the equine body, and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its 
harmonious action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the 
relations of its parts and the mode of their cooperation. 

ANATOMY. 

The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and 
totality constitute the skeleton of an animal. They are of various 
forms, three of which — the long, the flat, and the small — are recog- 
nized in the extremil ies. These are more or less regular in their form, 
but present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in 
turn, according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth 
surface, variously marked with grooves, crests, eminences, and depres- 
sions, for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before men- 
tioned, are connected by articulations and joints, of which some are 
immovable and others of a movable kind. 

The substance of the bones is composed of a mass of combined 
earthy and animal matter, surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping 
membrane (the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the ex- 
ternal surface of the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of 
the bony structure. The bony tissue proper is of two consistencies, 
the external portion being hard and " compact,'' and called by the 
latter term, while the internal, known as the " spongy,*' or " areolar 
tissue," corresponds with the descriptive terms. Those of the bones 
which possess this latter consistency contain also, in their spongy por- 
tion, the medullary substance known as marrow, which is deposited in 
large quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where 
a central cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity. 
The nourishment of the bones is effected by means of what is known 
as the nutrient foramen, an opening established for the passage of the 
blood vessels which convey the necessary nourishment to the interior 
of the organ. There are other minutiae concerning the nourishment of 
the skeleton, such as the venous arrangement and the classification 
of their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest 
as an abstract study, are not of sufficient practical value to refer to 
here. 

The active organs of locomotion, the muscles, speaking generally, 
form the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and 
surround the bones of the extremities. They vary greatly in shape 
and size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are 
variously and capriciously named, some from their shape, some from 
their situation, and others from their use. and thus we have abductors 
and adductors, the pyramidal and orbicular, the digastricus, the 
vastus, and so on. Those which are under the control of the will, 



ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 277 

known as the voluntary muscles, appear in the form of fleshy 
structures, red in color, and with fibers of various degrees of fineness, 
and are composed of fasciculi, or bundles of fibers, united by con- 
nective or cellular tissue, each fasciculus being composed of smaller 
ones, less in size, but united in a similar manner to compose the 
larger formations, each of which is enveloped by a structure of similar 
nature known as the sarcolemma. Many of the muscles are united to 
the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but, in other 
instances, the body of the muscle is more or less gradually trans- 
formed into a cordy or membranous structure known as the tendon 
or sinew, and the attachment is made by very short fibrous threads 
through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, passing from 
a single one to several other of the bones, effects its object at a point 
far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action 
from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another, 
these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to 
glide, either upon the bones themselves or formed at their articula- 
tions, and this need is supplied by the secretion of the synovial fluid, 
a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendinous 
synovial sac designed for the purpose. 

Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting 
the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their vari- 
ous forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the 
arm, at the posterior part of the kneejoint, and also at the fetlocks, 
on their posterior part. 

As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass 
over these natural pulleys they are retained in place by strong fibrous 
bands or sheaths, which are by no means exempt from danger of 
injury, as will be readily inferred from a consideration of their im- 
portant special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons 
themselves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of what- 
ever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either. 

We have referred to that special formation of the external surface 
of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, 
either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation 
and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place. 
These are formed generally by the extremities of the long bones, or 
may exist on the surfaces of the short ones. The points or regions 
where the contact occurs is denominated the articular surface, which 
assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and 
form, being in one case comparatively flat and another elevated; or 
as forming a protruding head or knob, with a distinct convexity ; and 
again presenting a corresponding depression or cavity, accurately 
adapted to complete, by their coaptation, the ball and socket joint. 
The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first 



278 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

kind, while that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition 
of the latter. 

The structure whose office is to retain the articulating surfaces in 
place is the ligament. This is usually a white, fibrous, inelastic 
tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and yellowish. 
In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind 
more firmly together the bones to which its extremities are attached; 
in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially sur- 
rounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the pro- 
tection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. 
This latter form, known as capsular, is usually found in connection 
with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The 
capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the cap- 
sular appearing as a membranous sac wholly or partially inclosing 
the joint; the funicular, here known as an interarticular ligament, 
occupying the interior, and thus securing the union of the several 
bones more firmly and effectively than would be possible for the cap- 
sular ligament unassisted. 

The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances 
of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect 
working of the interesting piece of living machinery which perforins 
the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature 
has consequently provided for obviating the evils of attrition and 
friction, and insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its 
parts, by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital 
lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or 
rather glairy secretion, which performs the indispensable office of 
facilitating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given 
points of the bones. This fluid, which is deposited in a containing 
sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting 
organ, is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the 
inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, is attached 
only upon the edges of the bones without extending upon their 
length, or between the layers of cartilage which lie between the bones 
and their articular surfaces. 

Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure 
and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather 
to outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the gen- 
eral features of the subject than to oiler a minute description of the 
parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive dwe attention 
as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the 
matters which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The 
foundation of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found 
sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessary to 
insure a ready comprehension of the essential matters which are to 



DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 279 

follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we 
have said touching these elementary truths will probably be sufficient 
to facilitate a clear understanding of the requirements essential to 
the perfection and regularity which characterize the normal perform- 
ance of the various movements which result in the accomplishment of 
the action of locomotion. So long as the bones, the muscles and their 
tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments and their 
synovial structure, the nerves and the controlling influences which 
they exercise over all, with the blood vessels which distribute to every 
part, however minute, the vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole 
fabric in being and activity — so long as these various constituents and 
adjuncts of animal life preserve their normal exemption from disease, 
traumatism, and pathological change, the function of locomotion will 
continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency. 

But on the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted 
in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change 
or irregularity of form, dimensions, location, or action occur in any 
portion of the apparatus — any obstruction or misdirection of vital 
power take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena 
of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be be- 
trayed — and we have in the result the condition of lameness. 

DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. 

Physiology. — Comprehensively and universally considered, then, 
the term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the 
function of locomotion, irrespective of the cause which produced it or 
the degree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may 
be exhibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be 
demanded for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly 
trained powers of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases 
where the animal is said to be fainting, tender, or to go sore. On the 
contrary, the patient may be so far affected as to .refuse utterly to use 
an injured leg, and under compulsory motion keep it raised from the 
ground, and prefer to travel on three legs rather than to bear any por- 
tion of his weight upon the afflicted member. In these two extremes, 
and in all the intermediate degrees, the patient is simply lame — 
pathognomonic minutiae being considered and settled in a place of 
their own. 

This last condition of disabled function — lameness on three legs — 
and many of the lower degrees of simple lameness are very easy of 
detection, but the first, or mere tenderness or soreness, may be very 
difficult to identify, and at times very serious results have followed 
from the obscurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malady. 
For it may easity occur that in the absence of the treatment which an 
early correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment 



280 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

may so take advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply 
into the economy to be subverted, and become transformed into a 

disabling chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal. 
Henoe the impolicy of depreciating early symptoms because they are 
unaccompanied by distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from 
a lack of threatening appearances inferring the absence of danger. 
The possibilities of an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra 
caution costs nothing, even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first 
duty of a practitioner, when introduced to a case, is not always an 
easy task, though it is too frequently expected that the diagnosis, or 
" what is the matter " verdict, will be reached by the quickest and 
surest kind of an " instantaneous process," and a sure prognosis, or 
" how will it end,"' guessed at instanter. 

Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is compar- 
atively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a person will 
readily note the changes of movements which will have taken place 
in the animal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they 
are indeed slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not 
always easy is the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing 
irregularity, of the locality of its point of origin, and whether its 
seat be in the near or off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the 
body. These are questions too often wrongly answered, notwith- 
standing the fact that with a little careful scrutiny the point may be 
easily settled. The error, which is too often committed, of pronounc- 
ing the leg upon which the animal travels soundly as the seat of the 
lameness, is the result of a misinterpretation of the physiology of 
locomotion in the crippled animal. Much depends upon the gait with 
which the animal moves while under examination. The act of walk- 
ing is unfavorable for accurate observation, though, if the animal 
walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. The action of gal- 
loping will often, by the rapidity of the muscular movements and 
their quick succession, interfere with a nice study of their rhythm, and 
it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the examination can 
be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that gait. It is 
while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made with the 
best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving with 
that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which must 
form the elements of the diagnosis. 

Our first consideration should be the physiology of normal or 
healthy locomotion, that from thence we may the more easily reach 
our conclusions touching lameness, or that which is abnormal, and 
by this process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution 
of the first problem, to wit. in which leg is the seat of the Lameness? 

A word of definition is here accessary, in order to render that which 
follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each 



DEFINITION OP LAMENESS. 281 

two of the legs, as referred to in pairs, is denominated a biped. Of 
the four points occupied by the feet of the animal while standing 
at rest, forming a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior 
biped ; the two hinder, the posterior; the two on one side, the lateral; 
and one of either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of 
the hind or front biped will form the diagonal hi pal. 

Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each 
separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an 
equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of 
the weight of the body, it will be readily appreciated that the result 
of this distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth 
displacement of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that 
therefore, according to the rapidity of the motion in different gaits, 
each single leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear 
the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in 
the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped 
may be called upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite 
biped while also in the air in the act of moving. 

To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal 
may be placed at 1,000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and 
healthy condition, supports while at rest 250 pounds. When one of 
the fore legs is in action, or in the air, and carrying no weight, its 250 
pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or part- 
ner, to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and 
raised from the ground, their congeners still resting in inaction, will 
carry the total weight of the other two, or 500 pounds. And as the 
succession of movements continues, and the change from one leg to 
another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait, 
proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of 
active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one biped to 
another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with 
an interesting example of the play of vital mechanics in a healthy 
organization. 

Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a 
single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or 
failure. When at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it, 
without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised 
from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate, it will 
perform the act in such a manner that when it is again placed upon the 
ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to 
receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it 
upon the ground or raising it up again for the forward movement 
while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each move- 
ment will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the 
act be that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the 



282 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

regular play of every part of the apparatus will testify to the exist- 
( nee of that condition of orderly soundness and efficient activity 
eloquently suggestive of the condition of vital integrity, which is 
-imply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and 
soundness. 

But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the 
elements of the case: some invisible agency of evil intrude among 
the harmonizing processes going forward; any disorder occur in the 
relations of cooperating parts; anything appear to neutralize the 
efficiency of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept and 
to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs 
to it to sustain — present itself, whether as the effect of traumatic acci- 
dents or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to 
defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus, 
at once we are confronted by that which may be looked upon as a 
cause of lameness. 

Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that 
it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discord- 
ance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by 
the sound one, and must be searched for in that as well as the halting 
member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of 
action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will vary greatly 
from that which it exhibited when in a healthy condition, and the 
sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three 
particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, 
that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the 
ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished. 
Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exer- 
tion by the sound one, and lack of facility or disposition to rest the 
lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of 
that action on the sound side. Changes in the act of elevating the 
leg, or of carrying it forward, or in both, will present entirely oppo- 
site conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated 
rapidly, moved carefully forward, and returned to the ground with 
caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected 
as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the 
ground, move boldly and rapidly forward, and strike the ground 
promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the sound 
member carries more than its normal, healthy share of the weight of 
the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 250 pounds, and 
thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500 pounds, all 
depending upon (he degree of the existing lameness, whether it is 
simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has 
reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of 
traveling on three legs. 

That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact 



HOW TO DETECT LAMENESS. 283 

may be established by observing the manifestations attending a single 
alteration in the balancing of the body. In health the support and 
equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs 
is equalized, and passes by regular alternations from the right to the 
left side, and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled, 
relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes, 
consequently, practically heavier, and the mass of the body will 
incline or settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore, 
means dropping or settling on the right, and vice versa. We empha- 
size this statement and insist upon it, the more from the frequency 
of the instances of error which have come under our notice, in which 
parties have insisted upon their view that the leg which is the seat of 
the lameness is that upon which he drops, and which the animal is 
usually supposed to favor. 

HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. 

Properly appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully 
comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lame- 
ness j but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the 
question as to which side of the animal the lameness is seated, except 
to examine the patient while in action. We have already stated our 
reasons for preferring the movement of trotting for this purpose. In 
conducting such an examination the animal should be unblanketed, 
and held by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to 
manage his paces, and the trial should always be made over a firm, 
hard road whenever such is available. He is to be examined from 
various positions — from before, from behind, and from each side. 
Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by, and as he recedes, 
the observer should carefully study that important action which we 
have spoken of as the dropping of the body upon one extremity or the 
other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the 
motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same side 
on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping toward the right 
when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in pos- 
terior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions, 
of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the ani- 
mal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, 
and this irregularity is accompanied by dropping or nodding the 
head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time 
the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left 
side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness 
is on the off side. 

But in a majority of cases the answer to the first question relating 
to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There 
are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which 



284 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the 
resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That 
a horse is Lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it 
becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what 
region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over, 
and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion 
of the investigation has commenced— except, of course, in eases of 
which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of 
error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame 
leg is performing its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions 
of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which 
enter into its structure; by minutely examining every part of the 
limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any. in 
temperature and the state of the sensibility — all these investigations 
may guide the surgeon to a correct, localization of the seat of trouble, 
but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, 
and. above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, 
of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the 
subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts 
which compose the suffering extremity. 

The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the 
extremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use, 
should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an 
obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may 
have an apparent location elsewhere when that is the true seat of 
the trouble, and the surgeon who. while examining his lame patient, 
discovers a ringbone, and satisfying himself that he has encountered 
the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without 
subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, may deeply regret his neglect 
and inadvertence at a later day, when regrets will avail nothing 
toward remedying the irreparable injury which has ensued upon his 
partial method of exploration. But, as in human pathological experi- 
ence, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their 
fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which 
they might be identified and classified, so it will happen that in the 
humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecogniz- 
able ailments will at times baffle the most skilled veterinarian, and 
leave our burden-bearing servants to succumb to the inevitable, and 
suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. 

DISEASES OF BONES. 
PERIOSTITIS, OSTITIS. AND EXOSTOSIS. 

From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between 
the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it 
frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has 
supervened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily af- 



DISEASES OP THE BONES. 285 

fected, and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the 
body of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the 
fact is often of the first importance, in order to secure a favorable 
result from the treatment to be instituted. It is, however, quite evi- 
dent that in a majority of instances the bony growths which so fre- 
quently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general 
term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation 
of the periosteum, or enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis. 
However this may be, we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the 
body of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involv- 
ing the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known 
otherwise by the term splint, ringbone, and spavin, all of which, in an 
important sense, may be finally referred to the periosteum as their 
nutrient source and support, at least after their formation, if not for 
their incipient existence. 

Cause. — It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is fre- 
quently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, 
and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading 
inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the 
result is uniformly seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less 
diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting dis- 
tinctly from the surface from which it springs, as so commonly pre- 
sented in the ringbone and the spavin. 

Symptoms. — This condition of periostitis is often difficult to deter- 
mine. The signs of inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the 
parts so insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the 
soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to locate 
the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of 
the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible 
presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, 
in discovering the fact of the lameness, while the second and third 
remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb 
and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their 
palpable revelation to the senses. 

Treatment. — When, by careful scrutiny, the ailment has been 
located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to pre- 
vent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structure and 
increase of the exostotic growth. With this view the application of 
water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of 
alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The tendency to the forma- 
tion of the bony growth, and the increase of its development after 
its actual formation, may often be checked by the application of a 
severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means and the 
establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic perios- 
titis cause various changes in the bone covered by the disordered 



286 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necro- 
sis, bui more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony 
growths referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. 

SPLINTS. 

We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlarge- 
ments which are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or 
the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. They are found on the 
inside of the leg, from the knee, near to which they are frequently 
found, downward to about the lower third of the principal cannon 
bone. They are of various dimensions, and are readily perceptible 
both to the eye and to the touch. They vary considerably in size, 
ranging from that of a large nut downward to very small proportions. 
In searching for them they may be readily detected by the hand if 
they have attained sufficient development in their usual situation, but 
must be distinguished from a small bony enlargement which may be 
felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint 
nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the buttonlike 
enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint 
bone. 

We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. 
This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, and 
they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they 
appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the 
case, and they may at times be found on both the inside and outside 
of the hind leg. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a 
single bony growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this 
invariably the case. In some instances they assume more important 
dimensions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on 
its posterior face, between that and the suspensory ligament. This 
form is termed the -pegged splint, and constitutes a serious and per- 
manent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play 
of the fibrous cord which passes behind it, becoming thus a source of 
continual irritation and consequently of permanent lameness. 

Symptoms. — A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lame- 
ness though not necessarily in every instance; but it is a lameness 
possessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous. 
but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked 
when the animal is warm than when he is cool. If the lameness is 
near the kneejoint, it is very apt to become aggravated when the 
animal is put to work, and the gait acquires then a peculiar character, 
arising from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from 
the knees downward, which is done by a kind of abduction of the 
lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness 
and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, may be looked for 
in the same connection as those which have been mentioned as per- 



SPLINTS. 287 

taining to certain evidences of periostitis, in the increase of the 
temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pres- 
sure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since its presence 
or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in decid- 
ing a question of difficult diagnosis. 

Cause. — A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the 
latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that 
the parts which are most exposed to blows and collisions will be those 
on which the splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be 
improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the 
common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be produc- 
tive of the evil, and among these may be mentioned the overstraining 
of an immature organism by the imposition of excessive labor upon a 
young animal at a too early period of his life. The bones which enter 
into the formation of the cannon are three in number, one large and 
two smaller, which, during the youth of the animal, are more or less 
articulated, with a limited amount of mobility, but which become in 
maturity firmly joined by a rigid union and ossification of their 
interarticular surface. If the immature animal is compelled, then, 
to perform exacting tasks beyond his strength, the inevitable result 
will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing asunder 
of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it 
is difficult to understand how inflammation or periostitis can fail to 
develop as the natural consequence of such local irritation. If the 
result were deliberately and intelligently designed, it could hardly 
be more effectually accomplished. 

The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence — so common, 
indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more 
specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of 
spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness, and 
its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewd- 
est and most experienced veterinarians, yet as a source of vital danger 
to the general equine organization, or even of functional disturbance, 
or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional cases 
which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to 
belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that at- 
taches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eyesores 
and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing different. The 
inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either subsides 
or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a perma- 
nence — more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm 
and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of 
labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence 
of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh 
access of acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological 



288 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappear- 
ance of the lameness. 

Treatment. — It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative 
harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of non- 
interference, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And 
a more positive argument for such noninterference consists in the 
fact that any active and irritating treatment may so excite the parts 
as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result 
in a reduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a 
second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our 
faith is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded 
on an experience of many years, during which our practice has been 
that of abstention. 

Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times 
indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occa- 
sions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of 
inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But 
our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the oper- 
ative kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. We have little faith 
in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions, 
among which that of diminutive size has been named, which seems in 
itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. But even in such 
a case a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justifi- 
cation, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of haz- 
ard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly 
negative in any question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary 
use of the knife. 

If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discov- 
ered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is 
at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to 
bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may 
be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alter- 
ative consisting of tincture of iodine applied to the inflamed spot 
several times daily. If the lameness persists under this mild course 
<if treatment, it must, of course, be attacked by other methods, and we 
must resort to the cantharides ointment or Spanish-fly blister, a- we 
have before recommended. Besides this, and producing an analogous 
effect, the compounds of biniodide of mercury are favored by some. 
It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the 
biniodide to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent 
blistering and alterative application, and is of special advantage in 
newly formed or recently discovered exostosis. 

It remains a pertinent query, however, and one which seems to be 
easily answered, whether a tumor SO diminutive in size that it can 
only be detected by diligent search, and which is neither a disfigure- 




w 

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V' v 











BINGBONES. 289 

ment nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any 
recognition whatever. Other modes of treatment for splints are rec- 
ommended and practiced which belong strictly to the domain of oper- 
ative veterinary surgery. Among these are to be .reckoned actual 
cauterization, or the application of the fire iron and the operation of 
periosteotomy. These are frequently indicated in the treatment of 
splints which have resisted milder means. 

The mode of the development of their growth ; their intimacy, 
greater or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones; the 
possibility of their extending to the back of these bones under the sus- 
pensory ligament; the dangerous complications which may follow 
. the rough handling of the parts, with also a possibility, and indeed a 
probability, of their return after removal — these are the considera- 
tions which have influenced our judgment in discarding from our 
practice and our approval the method of removal by the saw or the 
chisel, as recommended by certain European veterinarians. 

RINGBONES. 

This term forms the designation of the exostosis which is found on 
the coronet and in the digital and phalangeal regions. The name is 
appropriate, because the growth extends quite around the coronet, 
which it encircles in the manner of a ring, or perhaps because it often 
forms upon the back of that bone a regular osseous arch, through 
which the back tendons obtain a passage. The places where these 
growths are usually developed have caused their subdivision and 
classification into three varieties, with the designations of high, 
middle, and low, though much can not be said as to the importance of 
such distinction. It is true that the ringbone or phalangeal exostosis 
may be found at various points on the foot, in one case forming a 
large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the fetlock joint ; in 
another around the upper border of the hoof, or perhaps on the 
extreme front or on the very back of the coronet. The shape in 
which they commonly appear is favorable to their easy discovery, 
their form when near the fetlock usually varying too much from the 
natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the opposite 
side to admit of error in the matter. (See also page 413.) 

A ringbone when on the front of the foot, even when not very 
largely developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. 
If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling 
that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof ; when found on 
the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous growth somewhat project- 
ing, sometimes on the inside and sometimes on the outside of the 
coronet, may comprise (he entire manifestation. 

Cause. — As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in 
early life, before the process of ossification has been fully perfected : 
II. Doc. 795, 59-2 19 



290 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

or they may be referred to bruise-, blows, sprains, or other violence: 
or injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints may be among the account- 
able causes. 

It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and 
traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reason- 
ably anticipated among the sequelae of an abscess ot the coronet ; 
or the cause may be a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a 
deep-punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon 
any hard object of sufficiently irregular form to penetrate the sole. 

Moreover, a ringbone may originate in heredity. This is a fact 
of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with 
the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser. 

That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies 
is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be 
absurd to claim, but we do claim that a predisposition to contract 
ringbone due to faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns 
with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many 
cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may 
act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone. 

The importance of this point when considered in reference to the 
policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock 
is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the own- 
ers and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked trans- 
mission of ringbones from one equine generation to another shall be 
allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which 
are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves 
by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first, 
and the inference from such a fact which would exclude every ani- 
mal of doubtful soundness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list 
and the brood farm is too plain for argument. 

Symptoms. — Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring 
careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is 
quite likely to result in a ringbone of which lameness is the result. 
The mode of its manifestation varies according to the state of de- 
velopment of the diseased growth as affected by the circumstance- 
of its location and dimensions. It is commonly of the kind which, 
in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness wJu n 
cool, having the peculiarity of exhibiting itself when the animal 
starts from the stable and of diminishing, if not entirely disappearing 
niter some distance of travel, to return to its original degree, if not 
indeed a severer one. when he has again cooled off in his stable. 
The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree to which it 
clippies the patient, but the position may, especially when it inter- 
feres with the free movement of the tendons which pass behind and 
in front of the foot. AVhile a large ringbone will often interfere 



SIDEBONES. 291 

but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth, if situated 
under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and con- 
tinued pain. 

A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its 
location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the 
influence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavor- 
able cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the impor- 
tance and the value of an early discovery of its presence and possible 
growth. Even when the discovery has been made, it is often the 
case that the truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment. 
Months may have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lame- 
ness before a discovery has been made of the lesion from which it 
has originated, and there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by 
the uncompromising seriousness of the discouraging prognosis must 
the energy and severity of the treatment and the promptness of its 
administration be measured. The periostitis has been overlooked ; 
any chance that might have existed for preventing its advance to the 
chronic stage has been lost ; the osseous formation is established ; the 
ringbone is a fixed fact, and the indications are urgent and pressing. 

Treatment. — The preventive treatment consists in keeping colts 
well nourished and in trimming the hoof and shoeing to properly bal- 
ance the foot, and thus prevent an abnormal strain on the ligaments. 
Even after the ringbone has developed, a cure may sometimes be occa- 
sioned by proper shoeing directed toward straightening the axis of 
the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from 
the coronet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front 
of the pastern. As long as inflammation of the periosteum and liga- 
ments remains, a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury and canthari- 
des may do good if the animal is allowed to rest for four or five 
weeks. If this fails, some success may be accomplished by point 
firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch 
the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good. 
When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when 
the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent 
veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high 
or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as 
indicated by the seat of the lesion. 

SIDEBONES. 

On each side of the bone of the hoof — the coffinbone — there are 
normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of 
the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat 
resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the coffinbone. 
Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contrac- 
tion of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal 



292 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect per- 
formance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, 
however, liable to undergo a process of disease which results in an 
entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they 
acquire a character of hardness resulting from the deposit of earthy 
substance in the intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this 
change, when its consummation lias been effected, that brings to our 
cognizance the diseased growth which has received the designation of 
sidebones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging 
above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies 
composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly square in shape and un- 
yielding under the pressure of the fingers. 

Cause. — Sidebones may be the result of a low inflammatory condi- 
tion or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises, 
or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the 
foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of 
calcareous matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of 
that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some 
cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its sub- 
stance, the size and prominence of the growth varying much in 
consequence. 

Symptoms. — It would naturally be inferred that the amount of 
interference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result 
from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of 
the tumor, and that as the dimensions increased, the resulting lame- 
ness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact. 
A small tumor, while in a condition of acute inflammation during the 
formative stage, may cripple a patient more severely than a much 
larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is 
never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usually be 
detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The 
class of animals in which this feature of the disease is most frequently 
witnessed is that of the heavy draft horse, and others similarly em- 
ployed. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to the degrees 
of severity which may characterize different cases of sidebone. While 
one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, another may de- 
velop elements of danger which may involve the necessity of severe 
surgical interference. 

Treatment. — The curative treatment should be similar to the pro- 
phylactic, and such means should be used as would tend to prevent 
the deposit of bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which 
causes it. The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath: 
frequent soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with 
iodine, either by painting the surface with the tincture several times 
daily or bv applying an ointment made by mixing 1 dram of the 



spavin. 293 

crystals with 2 ounces of vaseline, rubbed in once a day for several 
days. If this proves to be ineffective, a Spanish fly blister, to which 
a few grains of biniodide of mercury have been added, will, in a 
majority of cases, effect the desired result and remove the lameness. 
If, finally, this treatment is ineffectual, the case must be relegated to 
the surgeon for the operation of neurectomy, or the free and deep 
application of the firing iron. 

SPAVIN. 

This affection, popularly termed bone spavin, is an exostosis of the 
hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the 
bony growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of 
the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute 
a spavin in the most correct sense of the term. But an enlargement 
may appear on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little 
below T the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, form- 
ing what is known as a high spavin; or, again, the growth may form 
just on the outside of the hock and become an outside, or external, 
spavin. And, finally, the entire under surface may become the seat 
of the osseous deposit, and involve the articular face of all the bones 
of the hock, and this again is a bone spavin. There would seem, then, 
to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone 
spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar 
affections which might confuse one if the diagnosis is not very care- 
fully made. 

But the hock may be " spavined," while to all outward observation 
it still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement perceptible to 
sight or touch the animal may } r et be disabled by an occult spavin. 
an anchylosis in fact, which has resulted from a union of several 
of the bones of the joint, and it is only those who are able to realize 
the importance of its action to the perfect fulfillment of the function 
of locomotion by the hind leg who can comprehend the gravity of the 
only prognosis which can be justified by the facts of the case — a prog- 
nosis which is essentially a sentence of serious import in respect to 
the future usefulness and value of the animal. For no disease, if 
we except those acute inflammatory attacks upon vital organs to 
which the patient succumbs at once, is more destructive to the useful- 
ness and value of a horse than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its 
inception, serious in its progress, it is an ailment which, when once 
established, becomes a fixed condition which there is no known 
means of dislodging. 

Cause. — The periostitis, of which it is nearly always a termination. 
is usually the effect of a traumatic cause operating upon the compli- 
cated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a liga- 
mentous insertion and lacerated some of its fibers; or a violent effort 
in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been com- 
pelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use as a gambling 



294 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

implement by a sporting owner, under the pretext of " improving his 

breed: " or the extra exertion of starting an inordinately heavy load; 
or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep; or slipping upon 
an icy surface: or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and 
other kindred causes. And we can repeat here what we have before 
-aid concerning bones, in respect to heredity as a cause. From our 
own experience we know of equine families in which this condition 
has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals 
otherwise of excellent conformation rendered valueless by the mis- 
fortune of a congenital spavin. 

Symptoms. — The evil is one of the most serious character for other 
reasons, among which may be specified the slowness of it> develop- 
ment and the insidiousness of its growth. Certain indefinite phenom- 
ena and alarming changes and incidents furnish usually the only 
portents of approaching trouble. Among these signs may be men- 
tioned a peculiar posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and 
becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the 
action of some hidden disorder. The posture is due to the action of 
the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried inward, 
and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then 
an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side 
of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel, but stiffly, and 
with a sort of sidelong gate between the shafts, and after finishing his 
task and resting again in his stall will pose with the toe pointing for- 
ward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Some little heat and a 
considerable amount of inflammation soon appear. The slight lame- 
ness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be notice- 
able after a short distance of travel. 

A minute examination of the hock may then reveal the existence of 
a bony enlargement which may be detected just at the junction of the 
hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and 
tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement, or bone spavin, 
grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which 
under it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. 
Once established, its development continues under conditions of prog- 
ress similar to those to which we have before alluded in speaking of 
other like affections. The argument advanced by some that because 
these bony deposits are frequently found on both hocks they are not 
spavins is fallacious. If they are discovered on both hocks, it proves 
merely that they are not confined to a single joint. 

The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion 
of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is 
most pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at 
work. The fust i- characterized by the fact that when the animal 
travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more 



SPAVIN. 295 

slowly, the motion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and 
accompanied by a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the 
other case the peculiarity is that the lameness increases as the horse 
travels; that when he stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when 
he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the 
first variety. 

As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the 
dimensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem 
to bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at 
times accompanying a very diminutive growth. But the distinction 
between the two varieties of cool and warm may easily be determined 
by remembering the fact that in a majority of cases the first, or cool, 
is due to a simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected 
with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular 
surface — a condition which, as we proceed further, will meet our 
attention when we reach the subject of stringhalt. 

An excellent test for spavin lameness, which may be readily ap- 
plied, consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for one or two 
minutes and holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. An 
assistant, with the halter strap in his hand, quickly starts the animal 
off in a trot, wdien, if the hock joint is affected, the lameness will be 
so greatly intensified as to readily lead to a diagnosis. 

Prognosis.— Having thus fully considered the history of bone 
spavin, we are prepared to give due weight to the reasons which exist 
for the adverse prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to 
pronounce when encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the 
importance of early discovery. It is but seldom, however, that the 
necessary advantage of this early knowledge can be secured, and when 
the true nature of the trouble has become apparent it is usually too 
late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, a 
skillful practitioner might have employed. We are fully persuaded 
that but for the loss of the time wasted in the treatment of purely 
imaginary ailments very many cases of bone spavin might be arrested 
in their incipiency and their victims preserved for years of comfort 
for themselves and valuable labor to their owners. 

Treatment. — To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery 
of lameness has been made : that is, the existence of an acute inflam- 
mation — of periostitis — has been detected. The increased tempera- 
ture of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the 
characteristic pose of the limb, and the question is proposed for solu- 
tion, What is to be done? Even with only these comparatively 
doubtful symptoms — doubtful with the nonexpert — we should direct 
our treatment to the hock in preference, to any other joint, since of 
all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be 
attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and 



296 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

function. And in answer to the query, What is the first treatment 
indicated? We should answer rest — emphatically, and as an essential 
condition, rest. Whether only threatened, suspected, or positively 
diseased, the animal must be wholly released from labor, and it must 
be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and 
conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than 
a simple exostosis, or whether accompanied by the complication of 
arthritis, there must he a total suspension of effort until the danger 
is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of — the 
longer the better. 

Good results may also be expected from local applications. The 
various lotions which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the 
tension of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate 
the circulation in the engorged capillaries, the liniments of various 
composition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative prepa- 
rations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodine — all these are 
recommended and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counter- 
irritants, for the simple reason, among many others, that they tend 
by the promptness of their action to prevent the formation of the 
bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action 
of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alter- 
ative preparations of iodine or mercury. And if the owner of a 
" spavined " horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has 
accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for: beyond this let 
him be well persuaded that a " cure " is impossible. 

For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against 
the patented " cures " which the traveling horse doctor may urge 
upon him. and withhold his faith from the circular of the agent who 
will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that 
nostrums may in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but 
the greater number of them are capable of producing only injurious 
effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by 
any such means, and if a trial of these 1 unknown compounds should 
be followed by complications no worse than the establishment of one 
or more ugly, hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and 
his owner. 

Rest and counterirritation. with the proper medicaments, consti- 
tute, then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the 
relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies 
and method- referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce 
satisfactory results. Either the rest has been prematurely inter- 
rupted or the blisters have failed to rightly modify the serous infil- 
tration, or the case in hand has some (indiscernible characteristics 
which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the agencies 
employed against it. An indication of more energetic means is then 



FRACTURES. 297 

presented, and free cauterization with the firing iron becomes 
necessary. 

At this point a word of explanation in reference to this operation 
of firing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our 
readers who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and 
possible crueltjr. 

The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, 
in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occa- 
sions of which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should 
be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a 
given part of the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It 
is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure 
with a view to a given effect upon a diseased organ or tissue by an 
expert surgeon. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The 
other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation which 
should be committed exclusively to the practiced hand of the veter- 
inary surgeon. 

Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy 
for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to produce relief 
after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient interval of rest 
should be followed by a second, or, if needed, a third firing. 

In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special oper- 
ations which have been tried and recommended, among which those 
of cunean tenotomy, periosteotomy, the division of nervous branches, 
etc., may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar 
domain of the veterinary practitioner, and need not now engage our 
attention. 

FRACTURES. 

In technical language a fracture is a " solution of continuity in the 
structure or substance of a bone." It ranks among the most serious 
of the lesions to which the horse — or any animal — can be subject. It 
is a subject of special interest to veterinarians and horse owners in 
view of the fact that it occurs in such a variety of forms and sub- 
jects the patient to much loss of time, resulting in the suspension of 
his earning capacity. Though of less serious consequence in the 
horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is 
always slow and tedious in healing, and is frequently of doubtful 
and unsatisfactory result. 

This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways. 
In the most numerous instances it includes the total thickness of the 
bone and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves a portion 
only of the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as 
incomplete. If the bone is divided into two separate portions, and 
the soft parts have received no injury, the fracture is a simple one; or 



298 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

it becomes compound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and 
com/minuted if the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments, 
many or few. The direction of the break also determines its further 
classification. Broken at a right angle it. is transverse; at a different 

angle it becomes oblique, and it may be longitudinal, or lengthwise. 
In a complete fracture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a con- 
dition of great importance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate 
resuH of the treatment in the fact that from various causes, such as 
muscular contractions or excessive motion, the bony fragments do 
not maintain their mutual coaptation, but become separated at the 
ends, which makes it necessary to add another descriptive term — with 
displacement. And these words again suggest the negative, and 
introduce the term without displacement, when the facts justify that 
description. Furthermore, a fracture may be intra-articular or extra- 
articular, as it extends into a joint or otherwise, and once more, intra- 
periosteal, when the periosteum remains intact. Finally, there is no 
absolute limit to the use of descriptive terminology in the case. 

The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining 
the question of treatment and as affecting the final result of a case of 
fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether 
its seat be in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its 
breadth, its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture 
may also be either simple or comminuted. In the latter case the frag- 
ments are held together by the periosteum wdien it is intact, and the 
fracture in that case belongs to the intra periosteal class. At times, 
also, there is only a simple fissure or split in the bone, making a con- 
dition of much difficulty of diagnosis. 

Causes. — Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in 
cases of fracture. They are the predisposing and the occasional. As 
to the first, different species of animals differ in the degree of their 
liability. That of the dog is greater than that of the horse, and in 
horses the various questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of 
the year, the portion of the body most exposed, and the existence of 
ailments, local and general, are all to be taken into account. 

Among horses, those employed in heavy draft work or that are 
driven over bad roads are more exposed than light-draft or saddle 
horses, and animals of different ages are not equally Liable. Dogs 
and young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for 
their bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are 
more liable than those which have not exceeded the time of their 
adult prime. The season of the year is undoubtedly, though in an 
incidental way, an important factor in the problem of the etiology of 
these accidents, for though they may be observed at all times, it is 
during the months when the slippery condition of the icy roads ren- 
ders it difficult for both men and beasts to keep their feet that they 



FRACTURES. 299 

occur most frequently. The long bones, those especially which belong 
to the extremities, are most frequently the seat of fractures, from the 
circumstance of their superficial position, their exposure to contact 
and collision, and the violent muscular efforts involved both in their 
constant rapid movement and their labor in the shafts or at the pole 
of heavy and heavily laden carriages. 

The relation between sundry idiosyncrasies and diatheses and a lia- 
bility to fractures is too constant and well-established a pathological 
fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis, 
of melanosis, and of osteoporosis, as related to an abnormal frangi- 
bility of the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge. 
There are few persons who have not known of cases among their 
friends of frequent and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of 
such as seem to be produced by the slightest and most inadequate vio- 
lence, and there is no tangible reason for doubting an analogous con- 
dition in individuals of the equine race. Among local predisposing 
causes mention must not be omitted of such bony diseases as caries, 
tuberculosis, and others of the same class. 

Exciting, occasional, or " efficient " causes of fracture are in most 
instances external traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls, 
etc., or sudden muscular contractions. These external accidents are 
various in their character, and are usually associated with quick mus- 
cular exertion. A violent, ineffectual effort to move too heavy a load ; 
a semispasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pres- 
sure; a quick jump to escape a blow; stopping too suddenly after 
speeding; struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be 
thrown in the effort — all these are familiar and easy examples of acci- 
dents happening hourly by which our equine servants become suffer- 
ers. We may add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebra 3 , 
occurring when casting a patient for the purpose of undergoing a 
surgical operation, quite as much as the result of muscular contrac- 
tion as of a preexisting diseased condition of the bones. A fracture 
occurring under these circumstances may be called with propriety 
indirect, while one which has resulted from a blow or a fall differ- 
ently caused is of the direct kind. 

Symptoms. — We now return to the first items in our classification 
of the varieties of fractures for the purpose of bringing them in turn 
under an orderly review, and our first examination will include those 
which belong to the first category, or the complete kind. Irregu- 
larity in the performance of the functions of the apparatus to which 
the fractured bone belongs is a necessary consequence of the existing 
lesion, and this is lameness. Tf the broken bone belongs to one of the 
extremities, the impossibility of the performance of its natural func- 
tion in sustaining the weight of the body and contributing to the act 
of locomotion is usually complete, though the degree of disability 



300 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 

will vary according t<> the kind of fracture and the bone which is 
injured. For example, a fracture of the cannon hone without dis- 
placement, or of one of the phalanges, which arc surrounded and sus- 
tained by a complex Hhrous structure, is. in a certain degree, not 
incompatible with some amount of resting on the foot. lint, on the 
contrary, if the shank hone, or that of the forearm he the implicated 
member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exercise any agency 
whatever in the support of the hody. And in a fracture of the lower 
jaw it would he obviously unreasonable to expect it to contribute 
materially to the mastication of food. 

A fracture seldom occurs which is not accompanied with a degree 
of deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This 
is due to the exudation of the blood into the meshes of the surround- 
ing tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the frag- 
ments of the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the 
inflammation of the surrounding tissues. The character of the 
deformity will mainly depend upon the manner in which the dis- 
placement occurs. 

In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with 
the joints as their only centers or bases of action, with no participa- 
tion of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and 
motion which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most 
strongly characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that 
when the shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints. 
with the lower portion swinging freely, that the leg is broken. But 
there are still some conditions where the excessive mobility is not 
easy to detect with certainty. Such are the cases where the fracture 
exists in a short bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region 
where several short and small bones are united in a group, or even in 
a long bone where its situation is such that the muscular covering 
prevents the visible manifestation of the symptom. 

If the situation of a fracture precludes its discovery by means of 
this abnormal flexibility, other modes of detection remain. There is 
one method which is absolute and positive and which can he applied 
in by far the most, though not in all cases. This is crepitation, or the 
peculiar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured sur- 
faces one against another. Though discerned by the organs of hear- 
ing it can scarcely he called a sound, for the grating of the parts as 
the rubbing takes place is more felt than heard; however, there is no 
mistaking its import in cases favorable for the application of the test. 
The conditions in which it is not available are those of incomplete 
fracture, in which the mobility of the pail is lacking, and those in 
which the whole array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain 
the benefit of this pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful, 
and gentle manipulation. Sometimes the slightest of movements will 



FRACTURES. 301 

be sufficient for its development, after much rougher handling has 
failed to discover it. Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to 
a sort of defensive spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting 
from the rude interference. 

More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture. 
Ecchymoses in the parts is but a natural occurrence, and is more 
easily discovered in animals possessing a light-colored and delicate 
skin than in those of the opposite character. 

There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete 
fracture, even sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the 
function of locomotion, with evidences of pain and swelling at the 
seat of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evi- 
dences of a blow or other violence sufficient to account for the frac- 
ture, though very often a suspicion of its existence can only be con- 
verted into a certainty by a minute history of the patient if it can be 
obtained up to the moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diag- 
nosis ought not to be hastily pronounced, and where good ground 
for suspicion exists it ought not to be rejected upon any evidence 
less than the best. . Serious and fatal complications are too often 
recorded of the results following careless conclusions in similar cases, 
among which we may refer to one instance of a complete fracture 
manifesting itself in an animal during the act of rising up in his 
stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had no fracture 
at all. 

Fractures are of course liable to complications, especially those 
which are of a traumatic character, such as extensive lacerations, tear- 
ing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. Unless these are in com- 
munication with the fracture itself the indication is to treat them sim- 
ply as independent lesions upon other parts of the body. A traumatic 
emphysema will at times cause trouble, and abscesses, more or less 
deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases small bony fragments 
from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose and acting as foreign 
bodies, give rise to troublesome fistulous tracts. A frequent compli- 
cation is hemorrhage, which often becomes of serious consequence. 
A fracture in close proximity to a joint may be accompanied by dan- 
gerous inflammations of important organs, and induce an attack of 
pneumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., especially if situated near the chest ; 
it may also cause luxations, or dislocations. Gangrene, as a conse- 
quence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an impediment to the 
circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must not be 
overlooked among the occasional incidents; nor must lockfaw, which 
is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder, or laminitis, has been 
met with as the result of forced and long-continued immobility of 
the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of 
unavoidably protracted treatment. 



302 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken 

ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation, one of two 
things will occur. Either — and this i> the more common event — there 
will be a union of the two ends by a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the 
ends will continue separated or become only partially united by an 
intermediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the fracture is 
consolidated, or united; in the second there is a false articulation, or 
pseudoarthrosis. 

The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a frac- 
ture will vary with the character of the bone affected, the age and 
constitution of the patient, and the general conditions of the case. 
The union will be perfected earlier in a young than in an adult ani- 
mal, and sooner in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy 
condition is, of course, in every respect, an advantage. 

The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the 
bones, has been a subject of much study among investigators in 
pathology, and has elicited various expressions of opinion from those 
high in authority. But the weight of evidence and preponderance of 
opinion are about settled in favor of the theory that the law of repa- 
ration is the same for both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case 
a simple exudation of material, with the proper organization of newly 
formed tissue, will bring about a union by the first intention, and in 
another the work will be accompanied by suppuration, or union by the 
second intention, a process so familiar in the repair of the soft struc- 
tures by granulation. 

Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it 
advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result, 
it may probably be correctly described in this wise: 

On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place be- 
tween the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon fol- 
lows, and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then 
an excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon 
spreads to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the 
compact tissue of the bone becomes the seat of a new vascular organi- 
zation, and of a certain exudation of plastic lymph, appearing be- 
tween the periosteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as 
on the inner side of the medullary cavity. After a few days the ends 
of the bone thus surrounded by this exudate become involved in it. 
and the Lymph, becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilag- 
inous, and in i\\w time into bony, tissue. 

Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured seg- 
ments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are sur- 
rounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed 
by a bony plug or stopper, constituting the period of the provisional 
callus. This is followed by the period of permanent callus, during 



FRACTURES. 303 

which the process is going forward of converting the cartilaginous 
into the osseous form. 

The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than 
in the herbivorous tribes. In the former the temporary callus may 
attain sufficient fineness of consistency for the careful use of the limb 
within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to 
two months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting 
apparatus from the limb. 

This, in general terms, represents the fact when the resources of 
nature have not been thwarted by untoward accidents, such as a want 
of vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the 
part of the practitioner, and especially w T hen, from any cause, the 
bony fragments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility 
and the constant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two 
portions. Failures and misfortunes are always more than possible, 
and instead of a solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the 
accident is sometimes a false joint, composed of mere flexible carti- 
lage, a poor pseudarthrosis. The explanation of this appears to be 
that, first, the sharp edges of the ends of the bone disappear by 
becoming rounded at their extremities by friction and polishing 
against each other. Then follows an exudation of a plastic nature 
which becomes transformed into a cartilaginous layer of a rough 
articular aspect. In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the lymph 
secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of becoming 
truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibro-cartilaginous pouch, or 
capsular sac, in which a somewhat albuminous secretion, or pseudo- 
synovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonly, how- 
ever, in our animals, the union of the bony fragments is obtained 
wholly through the medium of a layer of fibrous tissue, and it is 
because the union has been accomplished by a ligamentous formation 
only that motion becomes practicable. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis in a case of fracture in an animal is one 
of the gravest vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious 
pecuniary concern to his owner. The period has not long elapsed 
when to have received such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing 
a sentence of death for the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a 
similar verdict is pronounced in many cases in which the exercise 
of a little mechanical ingenuity, with a due amount of careful nurs- 
ing, might secure a contrary result and insure the return of the 
patient to his former condition of soundness and usefulness. 

Treatment. — Considered, per se, a fracture in an animal is in fact 
no less amenable to treatment than the same description of injury 
in any other living being. But the question of the propriety and 
expediency of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of 
collateral consideration. 



304 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

First. The nature of the lesion itself is a point of paramount im- 
portance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends 
can be firmly secured in coaptation presents the most favorable con- 
ditions for successful treatment. If it be that of a long bone, it will 
be the less serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than 
if it were in close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect 
immobility can rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring 
the risk of subsequent rigidity of the joint. 

A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A com- 
minuted is alwa} 7 s more dangerous than a simple, and a transverse 
break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious 
are those which are situated on parts of the body in which it is diffi- 
cult to secure perfect immobility, and especially those which are 
accompanied by severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts; 
the protrusion of fragments through the skin; the division of blood 
vessels by the broken ends of the bone; the existence of an articula- 
tion near the point to which inflammation is likely to extend; the 
luxation of a fragment of the bone; laceration of the periosteum ; 
the presence of a large number of bony particles, the result of the 
crushing of the bone — all these are circumstances which discourage 
a favorable prognosis, and weigh against the hope of saving the 
patient for future usefulness. 

Fractures which may be accounted curable are those which are not 
conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are 
either very limited or do not occur, the parts being kept in situ by the 
nature of their position, the shape of the bones, the articulations they 
form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolonga- 
tion; those of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra; those .of 
the bones of the face ; those of the ilium ; and that of the coffinbones. 
To continue the category, the following are evidently curable when 
their position and the character of the patient contribute to aid the 
treatment: Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions; 
those of the jaws; of the ribs, with displacement; of the hip; and 
those of the bone of the leg in movable regions, but where their 
vertical position admits of perfect coaptation. 

On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted frac- 
ture, in whatever region it may be situated, may be counted incurable. 

In treating fractures time is an important element and " delays are 
dangerous."* Those of recent occurrence unite more easily and more 
regularly than older ones. 

Second. As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of 
the smaller species than in those of more bulky dimensions. This 
influence of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that 
the difficulties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly 
any existence in connection with the former. The difference in 




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FRACTURES. 305 

weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the 
necessary applications of dressings and other appliances for the pur- 
pose of securing the indispensable immobility of the parts, and 
usually a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients 
are considerations in this connection of great weight. 

Third. In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious 
point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is 
the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during 
treatment — certainly for a considerable period of time; perhaps per- 
manently. For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just 
fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar 
accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extrem- 
ities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately 
as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it 
is exceedingly difficult to treat a fracture in such a manner as to 
restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of 
a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not 
necessarily impair their value as breeders. Other specifications under 
this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be 
omitted. 

Fourth. Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young, 
growing, robust patient whose vis vitce is active is amenable to treat- 
ment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies 
would be unable to endure; and a docile, quiet disposition will act 
cooperatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by 
the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer. 

The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures. 
The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly 
as possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in 
that position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provi- 
sional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the 
second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscar- 
riage which might disturb the curative process. 

In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that 
the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and 
his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this 
must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot, 
so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method 
of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two 
ways present themselves — he must either walk or be carried. If the 
first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order 
to obviate additional pain for the suffering animal and to avoid any 
aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support, if 
practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If 
II. Doc. 7!>r>. 59-2 20 



306 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

he is carried, it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambu- 
lance; the latter, being designed and adapted to the purpose, would, 
of course, he the preferable vehicle. As a precaution which should 
never be overlooked, a temporary dressing should first be applied. 
This may he so done as for the time to answer all the purpose of the 
permanent adjustment and bandaging. Without thus securing the 
patient, a fracture of an inferior degree may be transformed to one of 
the severest kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable 
injury. We recall a case in which a fast trotting horse, after running 
away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on 
the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, ami 
walked with comparative ease some 2 miles to a stable before being 
seen by a surgeon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was 
advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down, 
and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well- 
marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable 
displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a 
comparatively good recovery and though with a large bony deposit, 
a ringbone, was able to trot among the forties. 

The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or 
replacement, and retention. 

In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the 
necessity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place 
by an intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the unin- 
jured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there 
is no dislocation to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered 
impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions alone, 
or by the resistance arising from muscular contraction. This is 
illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding diffi- 
culty encountered in bringing the ends of a broken femur or humerus 
together, the muscular contraction being even in these animals suffi- 
ciently forcible to renew the displacement. 

It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and 
then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be con- 
sidered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the 
more superficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of 
the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations 
and appliances for their retention in their normal positions, hence 
the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same. 

The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of 
each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet dif- 
ferent circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the 
bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction con- 
sists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while 
the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being 



FRACTURES. 307 

the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces. 
If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in 
order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of 
the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been 
brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treat- 
ment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the 
fragments are pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to 
which they give insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by 
certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accom- 
plished by effecting the movements of extension, counter extension, 
and coaptation. Extension is accomplished by making traction upon 
the lower portion of the limb. Counter extension consists in firmly 
holding or confining the upper or body portion in such a manner 
that it shall not be affected by the traction applied to the lower part. 
In other words, the operator, grasping the limb below the fracture, 
draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw 
away, but simply to hold still the upper portion until the broken 
ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when 
the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent 
by the proper dressings to perfect the reduction. 

In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is 
usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of 
the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly 
held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone 
itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired 
coaptation. In such a case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular 
contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the 
bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this mode, 
the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the manage- 
ment of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of 
both hands for the further manipulation of the case. 

But if the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, it 
is far from being so when a large animal is the patient, whose mus- 
cular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In 
such a case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the 
necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference 
to the mode of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of 
the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first 
to be carefully cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes, or a broad 
leather strap about 18 feet long, passed under and around his body 
and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point 
opposite to the animal and toward his back. This will form the 
mechanical means of counter extension. Another rope will then be 
placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of frac- 
ture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be 



308 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

furnished with a block and pulleys, in order to augment the power 
when necessary; and there is, in fact, always an advantage in their 
use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well as of increased 
power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet, or, what is 
better, above 1 the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and is com- 
mitted to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uniform, 
and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully 
watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able 
to judge by the eye of any changes that may occur in the form or 
length of the parts under traction, and discovering, at the moment of 
its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region, 
he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of 
severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant 
of restoration are indicated by a peculiar sound, or "click," as the 
ends of the bone slip into contact, to await the next step of the 
restorative procedure. 

The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick 
muscular masses, excepting that it is attended with greater difficulties, 
from the fact that the finger must be substituted for the eye, and the 
raxis must take the place of the sight. 

It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the 
interposition between the bony surfaces of substances, such as a small 
fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood, and sometimes the 
extreme obliquity of the fracture is the opposing cause, by permit- 
ting the bones to slip out of place. These are difficulties which can 
not always be overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is 
only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be 
looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be 
by a deformed callus, the union will leave a shortened, crooked, or 
angular limb and a disabled animal. 

If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accom- 
plished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the 
best time for it. But if it can not be attended to until inflammation 
has become established and the parts have become swollen and pain- 
ful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms 
before attempting the operation. A spasmodic muscular contraction 
which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by 
subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore. 
cause any loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome 
by the use of datives and antiphlogistic remedies. 

The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the prob- 
lem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been 
restored to their natural position must be kept there, without dis- 
turbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it 
is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and 



FRACTURES. 309 

skill by the surgeon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus. 
One of the most important of the conditions which are available by 
the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian 
in the management of those which belong to the animal tribes. This 
is position. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with 
the instructions of the surgeon, but with the animal sufferer there 
is a continual antagonism between the parties, and the forced exten- 
sion and fatiguing position which must for a considerable period be 
maintained as a condition of restoration require special and effective 
appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immo- 
bility is scarcely possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach 
a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this 
reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the re- 
straint of patients in very narrow stalls is much to be preferred 
to the practice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom 
of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary and 
movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary 
practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness 
to submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obliga- 
tory to have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which 
should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolida- 
tion is complete. 

The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum, 
bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms 
a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended 
into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the 
locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and 
Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied 
directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed. 
A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recom- 
mended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and 
burnt alum with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula 
is spirits of camphor, Goulard's extract, and albumen. Another rec- 
ommendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive 
solution formed with gum arabic, dextrin, flour paste, or starch. 
This is advised particularly for small animals, as is* also the silicate of 
soda. Dextrin mixed, while warm, with burnt alum and alcohol cools 
and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to plaster of 
Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier 
and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and 
plaster of Paris form another good compound. 

In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion 
of oakum, thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the 
surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from 
chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is, 



310 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

variously, pasteboard, thin wood, bark', laths, gutta percha, strips of 
thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. These should be of sufficient 
length not only to cover the region of the fracture, hut to extend 
sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more complete 
than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with 
cloth bandages, linen preferably, soaked in a glutinous mixture. 
These bandages are to be carefully applied, with a perfect condition 
of lightness. They are usually made to embrace the entire length of 
the leg, in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the cir- 
culation of the extremity, as well as for the prevention of chafing. 
'They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward, and 
carefully secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory 
bandages are recommended, but excepting for small animals our 
experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation. 

These permanent dressings always need careful watching with ref- 
erence to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially 
during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any mani- 
festation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or 
any odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a 
thorough investigation should follow without delay. The removal of 
the dressing should be performed with great care, and especially so if 
time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability 
of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any 
points of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied 
in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost 
all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to 
proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there 
need be no haste for removal or change except under such special con- 
ditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge 
that solidification has become perfect, or for the comfort of the ani- 
mal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb 
from want of use. Owners of animals are often tempted to remove a 
splint or bandage prematurely at the risk of producing a second frac- 
ture in consequence of the failure of the callus properly to consolidate. 

The method of applying the splints which we have described refers 
to the simple variety only. Tn a compound case the same rules must 
be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the 
thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the 
escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the applica- 
tion of treatment. 

FRACTURE OF DIFFERENT BONES. 
CRANIAL BONES. 

Causes. — Fractures of these bones in large animals are compara- 
tively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they 
occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being 



FRACTURES OF BONES IN THE HEAD. 311 

usually runaways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree 
or other obstruction ; or it may occur in those which in pulling upon 
the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward, 
as might occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we 
have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the 
sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and 
the incomplete kind, which indeed is usually the case with those of 
the flat bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations 
of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under 
observation. But when the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact, 
the diagnosis becomes difficult. 

Symptoms. — The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied by any 
special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bony plates 
may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with 
sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. When the 
injury occurs at the base of the cranium, hemorrhage may be looked 
for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual 
termination is death. It may happen, however, that the symptoms 
of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, resulting in 
an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do 
well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In frac- 
tures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less pressing 
than with injuries otherwise located about the head. 

Treatment. — The treatment of cranial fractures is simple, though 
involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. When incomplete, 
hardly any interference is needed ; even plain bandaging may usually 
be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be com- 
bated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication 
must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining 
of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the 
depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the 
trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations, 
collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the brain substance 
must be carefully cleansed away, and a simple bandage so applied as 
to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings. 

FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE. 

In respect to their origin — usually traumatic — these injuries rank 
with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety. 
They may easily be overlooked and may even sometimes escape recog- 
nition until the reparative process has been well established and the 
discovery of the wound becomes due to the prominence caused by the 
presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. When the 
fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of 
the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent 
sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and in- 



312 DISEASES OE THE HORSE. 

flammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of 
these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restora- 
tion of the depressed hones as nearly as possible to their normal 
position, and their retention in place by protecting splints, which 
should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should he 
observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rub- 
bing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, the 
manger, the rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be 
washed out, collections of pus must be removed from the sinuses, and 
if the teeth are loosened and likely to fall out they should be removed. 
If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated. 

FRACT T JRES OF THE PREM AXILLARY BONE. 

These are mentioned by continental authors. They are usually 
encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and may 
take place either in the width or the length of the bone. 

The deformity of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this 
lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the 
crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing 
examination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth, 
abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the food complete 
the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment, splints of 
gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult 
application. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the 
union of the bones by means of metallic sutures. 

FRACTURES OF THE LOWER JAW. 

A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent occurrence. It 
involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and 
includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forward, or 
at the posterior part near the temporo-maxillary articulation, at the 
coronoid process. 

Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powerful muscular con- 
tractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among 
the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion 
formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches 
in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to 
drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result 
i^- a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and 
mastication of food become impossible: there is an abundant escape 
of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been 
wounded : there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone; 
and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip. 
Although an animal suffering with a complete and often compound 
and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious 



FRACTURES OF VERTEBRJE. 313 

aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and 
recovery is usually only a question of time. The severity of the lesion 
corresponds in degree with that of the violence to which it is due, also 
with the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It 
is simple when at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it 
affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are 
involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important prin- 
cipally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as 
osteoporosis, or the like. 

The particular seat of the injury, with its special features, will, 
of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without 
displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an 
ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient; but when 
there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accom- 
plished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of 
the symphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by 
securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be 
followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of 
leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of the head being then 
covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During 
the entire course of treatment a special method of feeding becomes 
necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation, 
of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the 
necessary food into his stomach, and it is accomplished by forcing 
between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a 
syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance until 
the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of 
food of a more solid consistency. The callus will usually be suffi- 
ciently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet 
to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the 
dressing restores him to his old habit of mastication. 

FRACTURES OF VERTEBRiE. 

These are not very common, but when they do occur the bones most 
frequently injured are those of the back and loins. 

Causes. — The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as 
elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while 
conveying heavy loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the 
process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under 
the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to 
carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, some- 
times result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the acci- 
dental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy 
iall when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently 
controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it 



314 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

is quite as likely to be caused by the violent resistance and the con- 
sequent powerful muscular contraction by the frightened patient. 
The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with 
excessive pressure against it from the intestinal mass, owing to the 
spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and 
so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint 
of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without 
anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body 
or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior 
lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of the last-named 
bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concus- 
sion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a 
fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when 
quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying 
displacement. 

Symptoms. — There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the 
occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which 
should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of 
a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet ; the movement 
of a sharp instrument, which at first excited his resistance, fails to 
give rise to any further evidence of sensation ; perhaps a general 
trembling, lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold, 
profuse perspiration, particularly between the hind legs, and fre- 
quently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examina- 
tion of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or 
irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminu- 
tion or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, while the 
anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making 
an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the 
hobbles, only the fore part of- the body will respond to the effort, a 
degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and 
fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs 
will remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and 
probably may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the 
bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete 
kind, either through the exertion of walking or by a renewed attempt 
to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time the 
paralysis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has 
become established, is a consummation soon reached. 

To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is 
always serious is to speak very mildly. It would be better, perhaps, 
to say that occasionally a case may recover. Fractures of the trans- 
verse processes are less serious. 

Trent tncnf '. -Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases 
as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question natur- 



FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 315 

ally would be: Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of 
the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our 
opinion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time 
and to act accordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence 
of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the 
destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one 
conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at 
once unite. 

If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists; that 
pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present; that the animal with 
a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short dis- 
tance — it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of 
placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery 
and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may 
be accomplished by securing immobility of the whole body as much as 
possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient 
in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and 
covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Watch 
and wait for developments. 

FRACTURE OF THE RIBS. 

The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the 
violence to which fractures of the ribs are due, and they are therefore 
either more common or more easily discovered during life at some 
points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and 
the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended by the 
shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or 'a number may 
be involved, and there may be injuries on both sides of the chest at the 
same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part of the bone, 
though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequently 
hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involving a por- 
tion only of the thickness or one or other of the surfaces. The com- 
plete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most com- 
monly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single 
bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at 
different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic 
region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability 
of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence. 

Symptoms. — In many instances fractures of these bones continue 
undiscovered, especially the incomplete variety, without displace- 
ment, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling, 
and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the 
examination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence. 
Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even 
when present, and they are not always present. When there is dis- 
placement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and 



316 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

when such an injury exists the surgeon will, of course, become vigi- 
lant, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic 
trouble, and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of trau- 
matic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are re- 
corded. Subcutaneous emphysema i^ a common accompaniment of 
broken ribs, and I recall the death from this cause of a patient of my 
own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the 
withers, under the cartilages of the shoulder, and of which the diag- 
nosis was only made after the fatal ending of the case. 

These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the 
union is never as solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus 
being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiar- 
throsis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart 
gravity to the prognosis. 

Treatment. — Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need 
no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blis- 
tering nature as a preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation 
when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to 
aid in the support and immobilization of the parts. At times, how- 
ever, a better effect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed 
firmly around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the 
ribs, it is apt to render the respiration more labored. 

If there is displacement, with much accompanying pain and evident 
irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay. 
The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displace- 
ment is outward or inward. In the first case the bone may be 
straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of 
the bone must be raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a 
small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be neces- 
sary. When coaptation has been effected it must be retained by the 
external application of adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages 
around the chest. 

FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE PELVIS. 

These fractures will be considered under their separate denomina- 
tions, as those of the sacrum and the os innominatum, or hip, which 
includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the ischium. 

The sacrum. — Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among 
solipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being 
attributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and 
other external hurts, but to the act of coition and violent efforts in 
parturition. It is generally of the transverse kind and may be recog- 
nized by the deformity which it occasions. This is d\w to the drop- 
ping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment 
of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural 
and spontaneous relief which usually interposes in these cases has 



FRACTURES OF HIP BONES. 317 

doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West, 
and their practice and example fully establish the inutility of inter- 
ference. Still, cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated, 
and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the 
introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as 
far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon 
another cs c fulcrum placed under it outside. The bone, having been 
thus returned, may be kept in place by the ordinary external means 
in use. 

The os innomhiatwm. — Fractures of the ilium may be observed 
either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone ; those of the 
pubes may take place at the symphysis, or in the body of the bone; 
those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior ex- 
ternal angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these 
constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articu- 
lar cavity — the acetabulum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone. 

Symptoms. — Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while 
others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which char- 
acterizes a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping 
and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indica- 
ting the existence of the condition expressed by the term " hipped." 
But. an incomplete fracture, or one that is complete without displaee- 
. ment, or even one with displacement, often demands the closest scru- 
tiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an 
animal may show but little appearance of it while walking, but upon 
being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until pres- 
ently he will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and perform 
his traveling entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lame- 
ness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the 
acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and 
the leg is dragged ; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share 
in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclu- 
sion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case, 
and while in some instances that will be but a report of the common 
etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and other external vio- 
lence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satis- 
factory solution of the whole matter. 

With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of 
its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of 
tissues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are 
no very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip 
bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not 
fail — it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external 
and internal examination — by manipulation of the gluteal surface 
and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the 
hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be 



318 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct — a slight sensation of 
grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of 
muscle which covers the bone — and the sensation may not only be 
felt, but to the ear of the expert may even become audible. This 
external manifestation is. however, not always sufficient in itself. 
and should always be associated with the rectal taxis for corrobora- 
tion. It is true that this may fail to add to the evidence of fracture, 
hut till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepita- 
tion from the surface, though a strong confirmatory point, i-. scarcely 
sufficiently absolute to establish more than a reasonable probability 
or strong suspicion in the case. 

In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the ex- 
ploring hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point 
of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts, 
both pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advan- 
tage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is 
the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assist- 
ant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and 
placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while 
the surgeon himself is making explorations and studying the etfect 
from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the 
character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By 
the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will " see " what 
is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone: 
to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it 
reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what loca- 
tion on the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. We have fre- 
quently by this method been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis, 
which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination, 
could only have been guessed at. 

Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always 
necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and 
external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the 
surgeon may discern the crepitation without it. 

Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with 
the formation of deep abscesses and "injuries to the organs of the 
pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may he associ- 
ated with fractures of the hip bone. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary 
considerably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of 
the ilium or of the ischium, especially where there is little displace- 
ment, will unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often 
quite U-rv from subsequent lameness. But if there i- much displace- 
ment, only a ligamentous union will take place, with much deformity 
and more or less irregularity in the gait. Other fractures may be 



FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. 319 

followed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when 
the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has 
left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which- 
may, with the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or 
induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern 
the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently 
observed when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis 
near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the 
obturator nerve. 

Treatment. — The treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should, 
in our estimation, be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively 
immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is 
enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is to place 
the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and 
permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best meas- 
ure, as we consider it, is to place him in a stall of just sufficient width 
to admit him, and to apply a set of slings, snugly, but comfortably. 
This will fulfill the essential conditions of recovery — rest and 
immobility. Blistering applications would be injurious, though the 
adhesive mixture might prove in some degree beneficial. 

The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip 
is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which 
that was too short a time. 

As we have before said, there may be cases in which the treatment 
for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms 
of partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to 
regain his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position. 
This condition is due to the interference of the callus with the func- 
tions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. T 
feel warranted by my experience in similar cases in cautioning owners 
of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a 
premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants; 
they are not all irrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moder- 
ate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural 
process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other ele- 
ments of change that may be so operating, the horse may in due time 
become able to once more earn his subsistence and serve his master. 

FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. 

This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due 
to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superim- 
posed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to 
effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller 
animals are the subjects. 

Cause. — The causes are heavy blows or kicks and violent collisions 
with unyielding objects. Those which are occasioned by falls are 



320 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

generally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and commi- 
nuted varieties. 

Symptoms. — The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are 
inability to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and (hey 
are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests 
upon the toe and seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by 
jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for 
inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear. 
Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the 
leg is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone, 
overlapping of the fragments and displacement will be considerable. 

The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious 
accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery 
without very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the 
injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone, or about the acro- 
mion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, com- 
plications are apt to be present which are likely to disable the animal 
for life. 

Treatment. — If there is no displacement a simple adhesive dressing, 
to strengthen and immobilize the parts, will be sufficient. A coat of 
black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in 
place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treat- 
ment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings. 

Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impos- 
sible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained 
by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat ; and this may be advan- 
tageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the 
parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal 
and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and cov- 
ered Avith a coating of adhesive mixture. 

FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS. 

These are more common in small than in large animals, and are 
always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and col- 
lisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and 
though more usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases 
extend to the upper end and into the articular head. 

Symptoms. — There is ordinarily considerable displacement in con- 
sequence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this, 
of course, causes more or less shortening of the limb. There will also 
be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be 
easy of detection. This fracture is always a serious damage to the 
patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incur- 
able, lifelong lameness. 

Treatment. — If treatment is determined on it will consist in the 
reduction of the fracture bv means of extension and counter exten- 



FRACTURE OF THE FOREARM. 321 

sion, and in order to accomplish this the animal must be thrown. 
If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjust- 
ment of the apparatus of retention, which must needs be of the most 
perfect and efficient kind. And finally, this, however skillfully con- 
trived and carefully adapted, will often fail to effect any good pur- 
pose whatever. 

FRACTURE OF THE FOREARM. 

A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna, 
the latter being broken at times in its upper portion above the radio- 
ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the 
forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve 
either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there 
intimately united. 

Cause. — Besides having the same etiology with most of the frac- 
tures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to 
kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large 
numbers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that, 
under these circumstances, fractures of the incomplete kind are those 
which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region 
almost entirely subcutaneous, Avhile those of the complete class are 
either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal, 
in the long axis of the bone. 

Sympto?ns. — This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the 
appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There 
is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility 
below the injury; the ready detection of crepitation — in a word, the 
assemblage of all the signs and symptoms which have been already 
considered as associated with the history of broken bones. 

The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar 
arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive 
soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with 
a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual way. Displacement 
is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the ole- 
cranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that 
case likely to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region 
there exists a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound 
and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis, 
especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the 
ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same con- 
ditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to 
treatment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union. 

Treatment. — Considering all the various conditions involving the 
nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the 
bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery 
H. Doc. 795. 59-2 21 



322 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and 
counter extension; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments; 
the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative 
mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may he here fulfilled 
with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part 
of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however, 
must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether these are of 
metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint 
to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both 
sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly con- 
structed box as to preclude all possibility of motion, while yet it must 
sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint 
(represented in Plate XXVII) recommended by Bourgelat is designed 
for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and 
w r ill prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the 
preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the 
entire leg. A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according 
to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when suffi- 
ciently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly 
hardened by the application of cold water forms a complete casing 
sufficiently rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner 
have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after 
the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily 
effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after soften- 
ing it by immersing the leg in a warm bath. 

FRACTURE OF THE KNEE. 

This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes 
place is Of a severe character, and always accompanied by synovitis, 
with disease of the joint. 

Cause. — It may be caused by falling upon a hard surface, and is 
usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and 
when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis. 

Sy?nptoms. — As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear 
weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis, 
or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of 
tin 1 knee, but crepitation is usually absent. 

Prognosis. — Healing is hard to obtain, as one part of the knee is 
drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the 
lower part. The callus which forms is hugely fibrous, and if the 
animal is put to work too quickly this callus is apt to rupture. In 
favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many 
horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop 
-die in the sound leg. as a result of pressure due to continuous 
standing. 

Treatment. — Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of 
bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight 



FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR. 323 

plaster of Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fet- 
lock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall well provided with bed- 
ding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder. 

FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR. 

The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of 
muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with 
immunity in regard to fractures. 

Cause. — It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this 
description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and some- 
times as the result of muscular contraction ; sometimes it takes place 
at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; some- 
times at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is 
principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture may be of 
any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete or incom- 
plete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety 
is recorded in which eighty-five fragments of bone were counted and 
removed. 

The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the 
diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepi- 
tation test is readily available, even when the swelling is considerable, 
and which is likely to be the case as the result of the interstitial hem- 
orrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of 
the region involved. 

Symptoms. — If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles 
of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted and the leg seems to 
be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is 
intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some 
cases be discerned by rectal examination, with one hand resting over 
the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of 
the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified by 
the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the 
dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is alw T ays 
accompanied by displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of 
the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot 
being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting 
it down, very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the dis- 
covery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower 
end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty, 
though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon 
the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to 
turn a suspicion into a certainty. 

Treatment. — The question as to treatment in fractures of this 
description resolves itself into the query whether any treatment can 
be suggested that will avail anything practically as a curative meas- 
ure ; whether, upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished 



324 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is 
within the scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were success- 
fully performed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any 
known means at our disposal? At the best the most favorable result 
that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments, with a 
considerable shortening of the bone, and a helpless, limping, crippled 
animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a " thus far 
and no farther.*'' 

In small animals, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable, 
and we are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the applica- 
tion of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition 
of undisturbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for " treat- 
ment " as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result 
as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundum artem doctor- 
ing known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of 
the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper 
end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her " treat- 
ment " consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In 
due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks 
she was running in the streets, limping very slightly, and nothing 
the worse for her accident. 

FRACTURE OF THE PATELLA. 

This, fortunately, is a rare accident and can only result from direct 
violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is 
accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inability 
to bear weight upon the foot, and finally disease of the articulation. 
Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper 
part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction 
being the only termination of this incurable and very painful injury. 
Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis. 

FRACTURES OF THE TIBIA. 

Of all fractures these are probably more frequently encountered 
than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As 
with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete 
or incomplete; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or 
at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The 
incomplete kind are more common in this bone than in any other. 

Symptoms. — Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with 
or without displacement. The animal is very lame.and the leg is either 
dragged or held up clear .from the ground by flexion at the stifle, 
while the Lower pail hangs down. Carrying weight or moving back- 
ward is impossible. There is excessive mobility below the fracture, 
and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in 
an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg. 



FRACTURE OF THE TIBIA. 325 

While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with 
any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some 
facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified. 
The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration: 

An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside 
of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very 
lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. Being 
then taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but 
within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing 
he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the 
result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and 
again a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the 
rule. The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is 
readily discovered at the point of the injury, the part being warm, 
swollen, and painful. What further proof is necessary? Is it not 
evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial — a mere split in 
the bony structure, which, fortunately, has been discovered before 
some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of 
the complete kind, possibly with complications? What other infer- 
ence can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish ? 

The prognosis of fracture of the tibia must, as a rule, be unfavor- 
able. 

Treatment. — The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening, 
and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordi- 
nary attempts at treatment. But though this may be true in respect 
to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessarily so with the 
incomplete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the 
slings is all that is necessary to secure consolidation. A few weeks of 
this confinement will be sufficient. 

With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be 
successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully 
applied and retained, a cure will follow. 

FRACTURES OF THE HOCK. 

Injuries of the astragalus have been recorded which had a fatal ter- 
mination. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but 
never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery 
have, as might have been anticipated, proved futile. 

FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES. 

Whether these occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in 
the body or near their extremities. If in the body, as a rule the three 
metacarpal or metatarsal bones are affected, and the fracture is 
generally transverse and oblique. On account of the absence of soft 
tissue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and 
render the fracture a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all 



326 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture ran only 

be suspected. 

Symptoms. — There is no displacement, but excessive mobility, crep- 
itation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg is kept off the ground 
by the flexion of the upper joint. 

No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of 
treatment, and the prognosis is, on this account, usually favorable. 
We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under excep- 
tional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly 
nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon 
bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the 
intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and 
ultimately caused his death. 

Treatment. — The general form of treatment for these lesions will 
not differ from that which has been already indicated for other frac- 
tures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient; 
coaptation, comparatively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situa- 
tion of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages — 
applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as 
in fractures of the forearm — these are always indicated. We have 
obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha, 
composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part 
of the leg as in an inflexible case. 

FRACTURE OF THE FIRST PHALANX. 

The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It 
is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or 
twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the 
case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper artic- 
ular surface down to the center of the bone, and generally oblique 
and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swelling and tender- 
ness of the region, possibly crepitation; a certain abnormal mobility; 
an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a dropping 
back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condi- 
tion of the pastern. 

The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the 
probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness, 
are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis. 

The treatment is'that which has been recommended for all frac- 
tures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been 
mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the frac- 
ture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less 
energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our 
know ledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject 
the animal to treatment, the post-mortem revealing only a simple 
fracture with very slight displacement. 



FRACTURES OF BONES OF THE FOOT. 327 

FRACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONET). 

Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often 
conditions associated with them which justify the surgeon in attempt- 
ing their treatment. Though crepitation is not always easy to detect, 
the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry 
weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest, 
as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet, 
with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is yet, by rea- 
son of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is by its struc- 
ture and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis. 
Only a slight manipulation will be needed in the treatment of this 
lesion. To render the immobility of the region more fixed, to support 
the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced 
immobility of the entire body with the slings is usually all that is re- 
quired. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process, 
must receive due attention subsequently. One of the severest com- 
plications likely to be encountered is an immobile joint (anchylosis). 
Neurectomy of the median nerve may relieve lameness after a frac- 
ture of the phalanges. 

FRACTURES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (OS PEDIS). 

These lesions may result from a penetrating street nail, or follow 
plantar or median neurectomy. In the latter instance it is caused by 
the animal setting the foot down carelessly and too violently, and 
partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving. 

Though these fractures are not of very rare occurrence, their recog- 
nition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of certainty 
pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is very lame and spares 
the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the 
toe alone and sometimes holding it suspended in the air. The foot 
is very tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon 
causes much pain. During the first twenty-four hours there is no 
increased pulsation in the digital and plantar arteries, but on the 
second day this symptom is apparent. 

There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not 
unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone 
or the coronet. 

No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof per- 
forming the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths 
and fomentations will do the rest. It may be months before there is 
any mitigation of the lameness. 

An ultimate recovery depends to a great extent upon whether the 
other foot can support the weight during the healing process without 
causing a drop sole in the supporting foot. 



328 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BONES. 



This lesion has been considered by veterinarians, erroneously, we 
think, one of rare occurrence We believe it to be more frequent 
than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections 
have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have often been 
mistaken for specific lesions of the "numerous ligaments that are 
implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have 
been described as a ''giving way" or "breaking down" of these 
ligaments. In my post-mortem examinations I have always noted 
the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from 
their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also 
separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of 
the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance. 

Cause. — From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly 
be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having 
any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is 
due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a 
theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the 
spongy consistency of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one. 
and the suddenness with Which different feet are successively attacked, 
at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the 
existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly 
incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor 
to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation 
in each of the four seasons. 

Symptoms. — The general fact is reported in the history of a 
majority of cases that it makes its appearance without premonition 
in animals which, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are 
first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest 
itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case. 
in illustration, will explain our theory: An animal which has been 
at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently 
noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait 
is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, without any of 
his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return 
to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be 
noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to 
another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony structure 
takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of 
the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it 
becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of 
a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon com- 
ing to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes 
turned up: he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground. 
The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of 



DISEASES OF JOINTS. 329 

which may have remained intact or may have been more or less exten- 
sively lacerated. It seldom happens that more than one toe at a 
time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its 
occurrence in another. Commonly two feet, either the anterior or 
posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore 
and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The acci- 
dent, however, is quite as likely to happen while the horse is at rest 
in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his 
fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occuring in my own expe- 
rience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease 
of the fetlocks, the nature of which had not been made out, when, 
apparently, improved by the treatment which he had undergone, the 
patient was taken out of the stable to be walked a short distance into 
the country, but had little more than started when he was called to 
a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both fore legs. 

While there are no positive premonitory symptoms known of these 
fractures, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come 
but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always 
justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been 
indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short min- 
cing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the 
sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and 
definable. 

Prognosis. — These injuries can never be accounted less than seri- 
ous, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our 
theory of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the 
lesions is truly the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and 
independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility 
of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible. 

Treatment. — In respect to the treatment to be recommended and 
instituted it can only be employed with any rational hope of benefit 
during the incubation, and with the anticipatory purpose of preven- 
tion. It must be suggested by a suspicion of the verities of the case, 
and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and 
to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastro- 
phe — the elevation of the toes — resort must be had to the slings and 
to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of 
Paris, with a high shoe, as about the only indications which science 
and nature are able to offer. When the fracture is an occurred event, 
and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treat- 
ment will be futile. 

DISEASES OF JOINTS. 

Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These 
are, affections of the synovial sacs; those of the joint structures, or of 



330 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of 
continuity known as dislocations or luxations. 

DISEASES OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. 

Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the 
result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition 
of the sac without any acute inflammatory action, while the other is 
characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modi- 
fications, constituting synovitis. 

SYNOVIAL DROPSIES. 

We have already considered in a general way the presence of these 
peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs where 
the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity 
of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous 
bursa 1 , as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological 
history, and we now propose to treat of the affections of both. 

WINDGALLS. 

This name is given to the dilated bursa 1 found at the posterior part 
of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition 
of the bursa? of the joint itself, and also of the tendon which slides 
behind it, and are therefore further known by the designations of 
articular and tendinous windgalls, or puffs. (See also page 375.) 

They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors, 
of varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumfer- 
ence. They are more or less tense, according to the amount of secre- 
tion they contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and 
the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness 
under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves 
under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to 
interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again where they have 
undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is 
among their tendencies. 

Cause. — Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as 
severe labor or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving. <>r 
jumping, or they may be among the sequelae of internal disorders. 
such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack. 

An unnecessary amount of anxiety is sometimes experienced respect- 
ing these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of 
their removal, all of which might be spared, for. while they constitute 
a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the 
animal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily 
amenable to treatment. 

Treatment. — When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical 
condition is not excessive, the inflammation may be checked during 



DISEASES OF JOINTS. 331 

the day by continuous cold water irrigation by means of a hose or 
soaking tub and at night by applying a moderately tight roller band- 
age. Later absorption may be promoted by a Priessnitz bandage, 
pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if neces- 
sary by a sharp blister of biniodide of mercury. This treatment 
should subdue the inflammation, abort the soreness, absorb the excess 
of secretion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the 
windgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quickly re- 
turned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them 
at first. 

But if the inflammation has become chronic, and the enlargement 
has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the 
wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a 
transient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again sub- 
jected to labor, and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflamma- 
tion has not supervened. 

But notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling 
there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing 
certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and dis- 
able the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated, 
especially if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms. 
Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life 
has received a new lease as the result of this operation timely per- 
formed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the 
sac by means of punctures through and through, made with a red-hot 
needle or wire, and the subsequent injection into the cavity of cer- 
tain irritating and alterative compounds, designed to effect its closure 
by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodine, may be 
commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects 
and require too much special attention and intelligent management to 
be trusted to any hands other than those of an expert veterinarian. 

BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIN, AND THOUOUGHPIN. 

The blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock 
and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It 
occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and has 
thus been frequently confused with the latter. 

The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful 
tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the 
product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular 

a This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in warm water or a dripping band- 
age laid around the diseased part, then covered by several layers of woolen 
blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or 
other impervious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure is obtained by such 
a bandage if water is poured upon it several times daily. 



332 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of 
the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astrag- 
alus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself and 
extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through 
which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular syno- 
vial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin 
being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. 

The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor 
situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it 
disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the 
hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear 
on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein 
which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and it is to 
the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that the term blood 
spavin is applied. 

The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock 
in that part known as the " hollows," immediately behind the shank 
bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the 
bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The 
swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called 
hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside. 

In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are 
similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms, 
pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except 
that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to 
involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which 
will, of course, justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a 
-ingle type of disease. 

We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means 
employed— rest, of course — with liniments, blisters, etc., and what 
we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any. early. Jeep, and 
well-performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory 
reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads 
and peculiar bandages upon the hocks, and it is claimed that the 
removal of the tumors has been effected by their use. But our expe- 
rience with this apparatus has not been accompanied by such 
favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering 
representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf. 

OPEN JOINTS, BROKKN KNEES, SYNOVITIS. AND ARTHRITIS. 

The close relationship which exists among these several affection-, 
their apparently possible connection as successive developments of a 
similar, if not an essentially identical, origin, together with the 
advantage gained by avoiding frequent repetitions in the details of 
symptoms, treatment, etc., are our reason- for treating under a single 
head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section. 



DISEASES OF JOINTS. 333 

Cause. — The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes 
permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is exter- 
nal traumatism. 

Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence, 
falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures — we may add compulsory speed 
in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals — cover the entire 
ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now 
receiving our consideration. 

In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and fall- 
ing on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abra- 
sion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough, 
mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without 
exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages. 

In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an 
impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his 
manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the kneejoint is 
induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a perios- 
titis of the bones of the knee; later as bony deposits, then lameness, 
and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequelae 
of chronic inflammation of the kneejoint. 

In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a 
careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable 
companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild- 
looking, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet caus- 
ing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be only after a few 
days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entire joint swells, 
presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is 
presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as 
a climax. The symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the 
degrees of the hurt, but in the nature of the lesion. 

Or the condition of broken knees, resulting as we have said, may 
have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin— a scratch, 
apparently, which disappears without a resulting scar. The injury 
may, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggra- 
vated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough ob- 
ject, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may re- 
main. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice. 

Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as 
a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with 
the escape of the synovia ; or worse, the tendons which pass in front 
of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg 
are swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in. 
With this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be 
established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes 
ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in 



334 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the presence of an open joint with suppurative synovitis — that is, with 
the worst among the conditions of diseased processes, because of the 
liability of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the 
joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to 
be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular 
surface — or the lesion of ulcerative arthritis, one of the gravest among 
all the disorders known to the animal economy. 

But ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be devel- 
oped otherwise than in connection with open joints; the simplest and 
apparently most harmless punctures may prove to be cause sufficient . 
For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the 
hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot, 
he is put to work, apparently free from pain or lameness, and per- 
forms his task with his usual ease and facility. But on the following 
morning the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiff- 
ness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg, 
and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down 
for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing, the pain is 
severe, and, finally, there is an oozing, at the spot where the kick 
impinged, of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration. 
The mischief is done: a simple, harmless, punctured wound has ex- 
panded into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis. 

Prognosis. — From ever so brief and succinct description of this 
traumatism of the articulations, the serious and important character 
of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is affected, will 
be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications in the prog- 
nosis in different cases, in accordance with the peculiarities of struc- 
ture in the joint specially involved, as, for example, it is obvious that 
a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single 
joint, with only its plain articular surfaces, is the place of injury, 
than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex 
formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative 
synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still 
cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character 
and at length subsiding, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves 
the animal with a comparatively sound and useful joint. There are 
cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than 
the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylo- 
sis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a high degree of satisfac- 
tion, since it insures a permanent lameness with very little capacity 
for usefulness. 

Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articu- 
lations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and 
troublesome are the complications which are likely to arise during 
their progress- and treatment, we are prepared to understand and 



DISEASES OP JOINTS. 335 

realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon 
their discovery and diagnosis. 

Treatment. — For simple bruises, like those which appear in the 
form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm 
fomentations or cold water applications and compresses of astringent 
mixtures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated 
character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will 
also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as 
those of the carbolic acid order. The escape of synovia should sug- 
gest the prompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and pre- 
vent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant 
and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in prac- 
tice the " expectant " method with warm fomentations, repeatedly 
applied, and soothing mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any 
is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of 
all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions — that is, 
in a practical sense — is to abstain from " doing " entirely, and yet we 
are firmly convinced that noninterference in the cases we are con- 
sidering is the best and wisest policy. 

In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will 
by degrees diminish, the extreme pain will gradually subside, and the 
convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and 
presently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedi- 
ous process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and 
normal condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly 
ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the 
whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating the absorption of 
the exudation will be of great service. But if, on the contrary, there 
is no amelioration of symptoms and the progress of the disease resists 
every attempt to check it ; if the discharge continues to flow, not only 
without abatement, but in an increased volume, and not alone by a 
single opening, but by a number of fistulous tracts which have succes- 
sively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidly and 
painfully sapping the suffering animal's vitality, and a deficient vis 
vitcn fails to cooperate with the means of cure — all rational hope of 
recovery may be finally abandoned. Any further waiting for 
chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelty and there 
need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is 
under sentence of death, and every consideration of interest and of 
humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident intent in the 
quick and easy execution of the sentence. 

One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable 
condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension 
of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them as long as 
he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint. 



336 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

DISLOCATIONS. 

Dislocations and luxations are interchangeable terms, meaning the 
separation and displacement of the articulating surfaces of the bones 
entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely en- 
countered in our large animals on account of the combination of 
strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with 
but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller ani- 
mals are more often the sufferers. 

Cause. — The accident of a luxation is less often encountered in the 
animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less sub- 
ject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions, 
or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in 
luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the coopera- 
tion of conditions — anatomical, physiological, and perhaps mechan- 
ical — present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, how- 
ever, can not in every case be clearly defined. Perhaps the greater 
relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may con- 
stitute a cause of the difference. 

Among the predisposing causes in animals may be enumerated 
caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical 
conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive 
laxity of the soft structures. 

Symptoms and diagnosis. — Three signs of dislocation must usually 
be taken into consideration. They are: (1) An alteration in the 
shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating 
surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shorten- 
ing or lengthening: (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint, 
usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be 
relied upon as essential. Luxations are not always complete; they 
may be partial, that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced 
but not separated. In such cases several symptoms might not be 
present. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility 
of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury has 
been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments. 

In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized 
by pain, swelling, hemorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or 
ruptured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are 
pressed on by the displaced bones. 

Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint. 
The knowledge of this fact requires that we shall be able to diagnose 
between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generally have 
three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as 
against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture: 
(2) in a dislocation there is no true crepitus — that peculiar grating 
sensation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of 



PLATE XXVI 




fuick 




Spa i iit 




I 



.S/.X/ I 7/1 

Haiues.del Nos.l,2and 3,OriginaLNo t, after Percival 
liOXK SPAVIN 



i. , BIE.N 6 CO ' 



PLA.TE XXVII. 




/ Brace for dislocation of ' th.e elbow applied to tfu 
la,,Tfte same brace seen alone. U Bract far dislocation 

vC fetlock- 'J a , The same brace applied to the horse. 




3a 



3, Brace for spraisied or dislocated shouldei 
.'ill, The same brace applied to the shoulder. 



Haines, del.afterPeuch andToussain.1 



JULIUS 9IEN &. CO I 



DISLOCATION OF SHOULDER AND ELBOW 
Bourgelat's appsu alus 



PI .AT I : XXVIll 




Haines del after Reynders 



JULIUS BIEN & CO N 1 



THE SITING IX I 'SI- 



DISLOCATIONS. 337 

fractured bones; however, it must be remembered that in a disloca- 
tion two or three days old the inflammatory changes around the joint 
may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3) 
as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamenous and muscular tissues about 
the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced, does 
not recur. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less seri- 
ous than that of a fracture, though at times the indications of treat- 
ment may prove to be so difficult to apply that complications may 
arise of a very severe character. 

Treatment. — The treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar 
to that of fractures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication 
in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow. 
The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter exten- 
sion, performed in the same manner, with the patient subdued by 
anesthetics. 

The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a 
fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to 
restore the bones to their true normal position, with each articular 
surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus 
necessary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which 
is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be 
retained for a period of from forty to fifty days, if not longer, before 
the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to 
perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be 
employed by the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing, 
rotating, and indeed whatever movement may be necessary, until the 
bones are forced into such relative positions that the muscular con- 
traction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite 
matched ends together in true coaptation — a head into a cavity, an 
articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case may be. The ki setting " 
is accompanied by a peculiar snapping sound, audible and significant, 
as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal symmetry. 

Spread dislocations. — While all the articulations of the body are 
liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals 
which may claim a special consideration, viz: 

THE SHOULDER .TOINT. 

YVe mention this displacement without intending to imply the prac- 
ticability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually 
unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a victim 
to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it 
is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as 
to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It may escape 
from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects 
H. Doc 795, 59-2 22 



338 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

it — outward, inward, backward, or forward — and the deformity 
which results and the effects which follow will correspondingly differ. 
We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may be 
added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of reduction are 
nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the 
retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible. 
The prognosis is sufficiently grave from any point of view for the 
luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder. 

THE HIP JOINT. 

This joint partakes very much of the characteristics of the humero- 
scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The head of the 
thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and 
the cuplike cavity, or socket, into which it fits is much deeper, form- 
ing together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover, 
reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite 
them together. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the 
anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an 
accident of comparatively rare occurrence. And yet cases are recorded 
in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its 
cavity and assume various positions — inward, outward, forward, or 
backward. 

The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation. 
When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised 
of the fact by the peculiar snapping sound usually heard on such 
occasions. 

' PSEUDO-LUXATIOXS OF THE PATELLA. 

This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly 
articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are of suffi- 
cient strength to resist the causes which usually give rise to luxations. 
Yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar pathological state in the 
hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the 
manifestal ion of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This 
peculiar pathological condition originates in muscular cramps, the 
action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the 
articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibi- 
tion of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms which have sug- 
gested the phrase of " stifle out " as a descriptive term. 

Symptoms. — The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his 
stall, or perhaps with one of his hind Legs extended backward, and 
resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move for- 
ward he will either refuse or comply with a jump, with the toe of 
the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a 
econd effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the 
stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg 
appears to be much longer than tin- other, owing to the straightened 



DISLOCATIONS. 339 

position of the thigh bone, which forms almost a straight line with 
the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and 
the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with. 
External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a 
certain amount of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifle 
bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper 
part of the joint. 

This state of things may continue for some length of time and until 
treatment is applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate, 
leaving everything in its normal condition, but perhaps to return 
again. 

Cause. — Pseudo-dislocation of the patella is likely to occur under 
many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yet it may 
often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary 
causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes 
these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slip- 
ping when endeavoring to rise ; sometimes to weakness in convalescing 
patients; sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general de- 
bility; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use. 
A straight leg, sloping croup, and the young are predisposed to this 
dislocation. 

Treatment. — The reduction of these displacements of the patella is 
not usually attended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic 
action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into 
place, when the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the 
time. But this is not always sufficient, and a true reduction may still 
be indicated. To effect this the leg must be drawn well forward by 
a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the 
hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the 
outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone suddenly slips 
into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic 
jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of 
lameness. But though this may end the trouble for the time, and 
the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the 
entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the 
loss of some proportion of tensile power which would naturally fol- 
low the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might 
become a habitual weakness. 

Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often pro- 
mote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field 
will in many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled 
shoe is recommended by European veterinarians. The use of stimu- 
lating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, may 
be resorted to in order to pi-eveut the repetition of the difficulty by 
strengthening and toning up the parts. 



340 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

DISEASES OF MUSCLES AM) TENDONS. 

SPRAINS. 

This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding 
of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding ami 
supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence, 
such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following 
symptoms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function. 
Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and 
commonly fibrinous exudation difficult to remove. None of the 
muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this 
lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their 
situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to become 
their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined by a 
consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely 
to arise. 

Treatment. — The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of 
local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating lini- 
ments, counterirritation by blistering, and in some cases even firing. 
Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, will be of advantage by promoting 
the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or 
absorption may be stimulated by the careful and persevering applica- 
tion of iodine in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength. 

There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and ten- 
dinous structures proper are affected by a strain, but, by contiguity of 
parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved, 
with a complication of periostitis and its sequelae. 

LAMENESS OF THE SHOULDER. 

The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from 
sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category. 
For, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often 
the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region, 
become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory precision and 
facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is 
articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm. 
but the joint is. notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerfully 
strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it. 
Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacera- 
tions of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or 
perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. " Slip of the shoulder " 
is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions. 

The identification of the particular structures involved in these 
lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the ques- 
tion of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of 
the spinatus muscles, or of the muscles by which the leg is attached to 



SHOULDER LAMENESS. 341 

the trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to 
treatment, or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the 
condition is quite changed when a case of tearing of the flexor brachii, 
or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, occurs, or, 
what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the 
groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces 
or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent. 

Cause*. — The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not diffi- 
cult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of the 
part, and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which 
in fact it performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preemi- 
nently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult, nor would 
it materially avail, to enumerate all the forms of violence by which 
the shoulder may be crippled. A fall, accompanied by powerful con- 
cussion ; a violent muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded 
vehicle from a standstill ; a misstep following a quick muscular effort ; 
a jump accompanied by miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a 
smooth, icy road; balling the feet with snow; colliding with another 
horse or other object — indeed, the list might be indefinitely extended, 
but it would be without profit or utility. 

Symptoms. — Some of the symptoms of shoulder lameness are pecul- 
iar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequently mistaken for 
other affections — navicular disease more often than any other. The 
fact that in both affections there are instances when the external 
symptoms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them espe- 
cially is very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or 
inexperienced observers, and to occasion the error which is sometimes 
committed of applying to one disease the name of the other, erring 
both ways in the interchange. The true designation of pathological 
lesions is very far. at times, from being of certain and easy accom- 
plishment, and. owing to the massive structure of the parts we are 
considering, this is especially true in the present connection. And 
still there are many cases in which there is really no reasonable excuse 
for an error in diagnosis by an average practitioner." 

Shoulder lameness will of course manifest itself by signs and 
appearances more or less distinct and pronounced, according to the 
nature of the degree and the extent of the originating cause. We 
summarize some of these signs and appearances: 

The lameness is not intermittent but continued, the disturbance of 
motion gauging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more 
marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are 
affected. When in motion the two upper bony levers — the shoulder 
blade and the bone of the upper arm — are reduced to nearly complete 
immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displace- 
ment of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either 



342 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

flexion or extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural con- 
sequence, is limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a cer- 
tain amount of swelling at the point of injury — at the joint, or more 
commonly in front of it. or on the surface of the spinatus muscle. 
A.gain, instead of swelling there will be muscular atrophy, though 
while this condition of loss of muscular power may interfere with 
perfect locomotion, it is not in itself usually a cause of shoulder lame- 
ness. " Sweenied " shoulders are more often due to disease below 
the fetlock than to affections above the elbow. 

During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat 
analogous to the "pointing" position of navicular disease, though in 
some cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semiflexed 
position. The backing is sometimes typical, the animal when per- 
forming it, instead of flexing his shoulder, dragging the whole leg 
without motion in the upper segment of the extremity. 

The peculiar manner in which the leg is brought forward in the air 
for another step in the act of walking or trotting is in some instances 
characteristic of injuries of the shoulder. The lameness also mani- 
fests itself in bringing the leg forward with a circumflex swinging- 
motion and a shortening in the extension of the step. The foot is 
carried close to the ground and stumbling is frequent, especially on 
an uneven road. 

A\"itli the utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty 
of the symptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis 
and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of 
aggravating the symptoms by way of intensifying their significance. 
ami thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by 
requiring the patient to travel on hard or very soft ground and 
compelling him to turn on the sound leg as a pivot, with other 
motions calculated to betray the locality of the pain. 

Treatment. — It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will 
in many cases disappear with no other prescription than that of rest. 
Provided the lesions occasioning it are not too severe, time is all that 
is required. But the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as 
a means of doing good, in the place of the active and the positive 
forms of treatment. This is in accordance with a trait of human 
nature which is universal, and is unlimited in its application-. 
Hence there must be something done. In mild cases of shoulder 
Lameness, then, the indications are water, either in the cold douche 
or by showering, or by warm fomentations. Warm wet blankets are 
of great service; and in addition, or as alternative, anodyne lini- 
ments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form of tincture or the 
oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating friction with 
suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering compounds, sub- 
cutaneous injections over the region of the muscle of 1 \ grains of 



SPRAIN OF ELBOW MUSCLES. 343 

veratrin (the variety insoluble in water) mixed in 2 drams of water, 
etc., will find their place, and finally, when necessity demands it, the 
firing iron and the seton. 

The duration of the treatment must be determined by its effects and 
the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of 
the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and 
the one without which the possibility of relapse will always remain as 
a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, rest, 
imperatively rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which 
it may be associated. 

SE'RAIN OF THE ELBOW MUSCLES. 

Causes. — This injury, which fortunately is not very common, is 
mostly encountered in cities, among heavy draft horses or rapidly 
driven animals which are obliged to travel, often smooth shod, upon 
slippery, icy, or greasy pavements, where they are easily liable to lose 
their foothold. The region of the strain is the posterior part of the 
shoulder, and the muscles which are affected are those which occupy 
the space between the posterior border of the scapula and the pos- 
terior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon which give 
way. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when 
the animal is in action. While at rest the attitude may be normal, or 
by close scrutiny a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may 
seem to drop; the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with 
the knee and lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on 
the toe, with the heel raised. Such an attitude, however, may be 
occasionally assumed by an animal without having any special signifi- 
cance. But when it becomes more pronounced on putting him in 
motion the fact acquires a symptomatic value, and this is the case in 
the present instance. A rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the 
walk, as in some few other diseases, becomes sufficiently characteristic 
to warrant a diagnosis even when observed from a distance. An 
entire dropping of the anterior part of the trunk becomes manifest, 
and no weight is carried on the disabled side, in consequence of the 
loss of action in the suspensory muscles. There are often heat. pain, 
and swelling in the muscular mass at the elbow, though at times a 
hollow, or depression, may be observed near the posterior border of 
the scapula, which is probably the seat of injury. 

These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varying from 
mere minor casualties of quick recovery to lesions which are of suffi- 
cient severity to render an animal useless and valueless for life. 

Treatment. — The prime elements of treatment, which should be 
strictly observed, are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of all kinds, of 
course, have their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform, 



314 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

camphor, alcoholic frictions, warm fomentations, blisters, setons, etc. 
But unless the conclusions of experience are to be ignored, my own 
judgment is decisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied; and my 

view of what constitutes a judicious application of rest has been more 
than once presented in these pages. There are degrees of this rest. 
One contemplates simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another 
means the enforced mobility of the slings and a narrow stall as well. 
Another a box stall, with ample latitude as to posture and space, and 
option to stand up or lie down. As wide as this range may appear to 
be. radical recovery has occurred under all of these modified forms of 
l< tting our patients alone. 

1111' LAMENESS. 

The etiology of injuries and diseases of the hip is one and the same 
with that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and the same 
results follow. The only essential change, with an important excep- 
tion, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the 
other in a description of its anatomy, its physiology, and its pathol- 
ogy, would be a substitution of anatomical names in reference to 
certain bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes con- 
cerned in the injuries and diseases described. It would be only a use- 
less repetition to cover again the ground over which we have so 
recently passed in recital of the manner in which certain forms of 
external violence (falls, blows, kicks, etc.) result in other certain 
forms of lesion (luxation, fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to 
recapitulate the items of treatment and the names of the medicaments 
proper to use. The same rules of diagnosis and the same indications 
and prognosis are applicable equally to every portion of the organ- 
ism, with only such modifications in applying dressings and appa- 
ratus as may be required by differences of conformation and other 
minor circumstances, which must suggest themselves to the judgment 
of every experienced observer when the occasion arrives for its 
exercise. 

There is an exception to be made, while considering the subject in 
connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the 
formidable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip-joint disease; 
and leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other 
heads, that relating to the shoulder, for instance, we turn to the hip 
joint and its ailments as the chief subject of our present consid- 
eration. 

Symptoms.— Tn investigating for morbus coxarius, let the ob- 
server first examine the lame animal by scanning critically the out- 
lines of the joint and the region adjacent for any difference of si/,.> 
or disturbance of symmetry in the parts, any prominence or rotundity, 
and on both sides. The lame side will probably be warmer, more 
developed and fuller, both to the touch and to the eye. Let him then 



SPBAIN OF LIGAMENTS OP FEET. 345 

grasp the lower part of the leg (as he would in examining a case of 
shoulder lameness) and endeavor to produce excessive passive mo- 
tion. This will probably cause pain when the leg- is made to assume 
a given position. Let him push the thigh forcibly against the hip 
bone, and the contact will again probably cause a manifestation of 
pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited action of the hip joint 
j:>roper and the excessive dropping and rising of the hip of the oppo- 
site side will be easily recognized. Usually the animal does not 
extend the foot as far as customarily and picks it up much sooner. 

The abductive or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness 
is also present in hip lameness, but under special conditions, and 
the test of the difficulty, either by traveling on soft ground or in 
turning the horse in a circle, may here also contribute to the diag- 
nosis, as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremity. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite seri- 
ous, not only on account of the long duration of treatment required 
to effect g^ood results, and because of the character which may be 
assumed by the disease, but of the permanence of the disability re- 
sulting from it. Exostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelae which 
often resist every form of treatment. 

Treatment. — As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition 
of the remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifi- 
cations occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip. and Ave are 
limited to the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages 
of rest must be reaffirmed, with local applications, of which, however, 
it may be said that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be 
more effective in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be 
more freely employed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters 
(singly or repeated), firing, or setoning. 

SPRAINS OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS AND OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OR THEIR SHEATH. 

The fibrous structure situated behind the cannon bones, both in the 
fore and hind legs, is often the seat of lacerations or sprains resulting 
from violent efforts or sudden jerks. 

Cause. — The injury may be considered serious or trifling, according 
to the circumstances of each case as judged by its own history. Among 
the predisposing causes are a long thin fetlock and a narrow knee or 
hock as viewed from the side, with the flexor muscles tied in just below 
the joint. The longer and more oblique the pastern the greater is the 
strain on the flexor tendons and suspensory ligaments, hence ;i low 
quarter, a toe calk, and no heel calks, or a thin calk placed at the tip 
under the toe, and leaving the quarters long abnormally stretches the 
back tendons and causes a great strain upon them just before the 
weight is shifted from the foot in locomotion. In runners and hunters 
the disease is apt to be periodic. In driving horses it is most common 



346 DISEASES OF THE EOBSB. 

in well-bred animals of nervous temperament. Draft horses suffer 
most frequently in the hind legs. 

Symptoms. — The injury is readily recognized by the changed aspect 
of the region and the accompanying local symptoms. The parts, 
which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the tendons and 
ligaments well marked, become the scat of a swelling, more or less 
developed, from a small spot on the middle of the back of the tendon 
io a tumefaction reaching from the knee down to and even involving 
the fetlock itself. It is always characterized by heat, and it is vari- 
ously sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness 
which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of the lameness 
varies, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, sometimes 
showing- only a slight halting and at others the extreme of lameness 
on three legs, with intermediate degrees. 

The lameness is always worse when the weight is thrown on the 
foot, and is most marked toward the end of the phase of contact with 
the ground. Either passive irritation of the leg or turning the ani- 
mal in a circle causes pain as in diseases of the joints. Sometimes the 
horse likes to get the heels on a stone or some elevation so as to relieve 
the weight from the flexor tendons. Finally, in cases of long stand- 
ing, a shortening of the tendons occurs, resulting in the abnormal 
flexion of the foot known by horsemen as " broken down." or a more 
upright position of the foot may follow, producing perhaps knuck- 
ling or the so-called clubfoot. 

Prognosis. — It may be safely assumed on general principles that a 
leg which has received such injuries very seldom returns to a perfect 
condition of efficiency and soundness, and that as a fact a certain abso- 
lute amount of thickening and deformity will remain permanent, even 
when the lameness has entirely disappeared. 

Treatment. — The injured member should receive the earliest atten- 
tion possible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present, but 
when it is subsiding and there is only the thickening of the ligament-, 
the tendons, or the sheath. 

The most important remedy is rest, and the shoes should always be 
removed. During the first three days cold in the form of immersion 
or continuous irrigation is indicated. Then warm moisture and con- 
tinuous pressure are advised. The latter is best applied by placing 
two padded splints about the thickness of the thumb along the two 
side- of the tendon and binding them in place with even pressure by 
bandage. Frequent bathing with warm soap suds is also beneficial. 
The absorption of the exudate may be promoted and the work of 
restoration effected by frictions with alcohol, tincture of soap, spirits 
of camphor, mild liniments, strong sweating liniments, and blisters. 
An excellent ointment to apply with massage consists of equal parts 
of blue ointment and green soap, with double the quantity of vaseline. 



KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. 347 

The action of blisters in these cases depends chiefly upon the massage 
used in applying them and upon the continuous pressure of the swol- 
len skin on the inflamed tendons. In old cases more beneficial results 
will follow line firing. In these cases shoeing is very important. 
Leave the quarters long, shorten the toe, give the shoe rolling motion, 
and either put short heel calks on the branches or thicken the 
branches. Although this line of treatment is efficacious in many cases, 
there are others in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to 
yield and the changed tissues remain firmly organized, leaving them 
in the form of a thick mass resting upon the back part of the cannon 
bone. 

KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. 

As a consequence of the last-mentioned lesion of the tendons, a new 
condition presents itself in the articular disposition, constituting the 
deformity known as the knuckling fetlock. (See also page 374.) 

By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the nat- 
ural angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articu- 
lation. The first pastern, or suffraginis, loses its oblique direction and 
assumes another, which varies from the upright to the oblique, from 
before backward, and from above downward; in other words, form- 
ing an angle with its apex in front. 

Causes. — This condition, as we have seen, may be the result of 
chronic disease producing structural changes in the tendons, and it 
may also occur as the result of other affections or some peculiarity 
independent of this and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones, 
sidebones, or traumatic disease of the foot proper. Animals are 
sometimes predisposed to knuckling, such, for example, as are natur- 
ally straight in their pasterns, or animals which are compelled to 
labor when too young. The hind legs are more predisposed than the 
fore to this deformity, in consequence of the greater amount of labor 
they are required to perform as the propelling levers of the body. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized. 
The changes in the direction of the bones vary more or less with the 
degree of the lesion, sometimes assuming such a direction that it 
almost becomes a true dislocation of the pastern. 

The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according to the 
degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening 
of the leg affect the motion of the fetlock, the lameness may be very 
slight or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is 
such a change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come 
in contact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the 
final result of this is soon witnessed in the development of a clubfoot. 

Treatment. — To whatever cause the knuckling may be ascribed, it is 
always a severe infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to 
overcome it unless it be during the very first stages of the trouble, 



;} IS DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

and the hope dwindles to still smaller dimensions when it is secondary 
to othei diseases below the fetlock. If it is caused by overworking 
the animal, the first indication will, of course, be rest. Line firing has 
proved very efficacious in these cases. The animal must be turned 
loose and left unemployed. Careful attention should be given to the 
condition of his feet and to the manner of shoeing, while time is 
allowed for the tendons to become restored to their normal state and 
the irritation caused by excessive stretching has subsided. A shoe 
with a thick heel will contribute to this. But if no improvement can 
be obtained and the tendons though retracted have yet been relieved 
of much of their thickening, the case is not a desperate one, and may 
yet be benefited by the operation of tenotomy, single or double — an 
operative expedient which must be committed to the experienced 
surgeon for its performance. 

SPRUNG KNEES. 

Though not positively the result of diseases of the tendons acting 
upon the knees, we venture to consider this deformity in connection 
with that which Ave have just described. It consists in such an alter- 
ation in the direction and articulation of the bones which form the 
various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from the 
lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone they are so united that 
the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition due to 
the retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon 
bone is flexed. 

( 'ause. — This flexion of the knee may be a congenital deformity and 
have continued from the foaling of the animal; or, like clubfoot, it 
may be the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled 
to perform at too early an age. It may also be due to other diseases 
existing in parts below the kneejoint. 

Symptoms. — This change of direction largely influences the move- 
ment of the animal by detracting from its firmness and practically 
weakening the entire frame, even to the extent of rendering him inse- 
cure on his feet and liable to fall. This condition of weakness is some- 
times so pronounced that he is exposed to fall even when standing al 
rest and unmolested, the knees being unable even to bear the portion 
of the mere weight of the frame which belongs to them. This results 
in another trouble — that of being unable to keep permanently upright. 
lie is apt to fall on his knees, and by this act becomes presently a 
sufferer from the lesion known by the term of broken knees. 

Treatment.— Whatever may be the originating cause of this imper- 
fection, it detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a 
horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him 
for service under the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his 
rider. If. however, the trouble is known from the start, and i not 
the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the kneejoint. or 



curb. 349 

secondary to other diseases, rest, with fortifying frictions, may some- 
times aid in strengthening the joints; and the application of blisters 
on the posterior part of the knee, from a short distance above to a 
point a little below the joint, may be followed by some satisfactory 
results; but with this trouble, as with knuckling fetlocks, the danger 
of relapse must be kept in mind as a contingency always liable to 
occur. 

CURB. 

This lesion is the bulging backward of the posterior part of the 
hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, extend- 
ing from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fetlock. 

Cause. — The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on 
the posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong 
ligament situated on the posterior border of the <>* calcis. 

Hocks of a certain conformation seem to possess a greater liability 
to curb than others. They are overbent, coarse, and thick in appear- 
ance, or may be too narrow from front to back across the lower por- 
tion. This condition may therefore result as a sequence to congeni- 
tal malformation, as in the case of horses that are saber-legged. It 
often occurs, also, as the result of violent efforts, of heavy pulling, of 
high jumping, or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of 
the causes heretofore considered as instrumental in producing lacera- 
tions of muscular, tendinous, or ligamentous structure. 

Syinptoms. — A hock affected with curb will, at the outset, present 
a swelling more or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying 
degrees of heat and soreness, and these will be accompanied by lame- 
ness of a permanent character. At a later period, however, the swell- 
ing will become better defined, the deformity more characteristic, the 
prominent curved line readily detected, and the thickness of the infil- 
trated tissue easily determined by the fingers. At this time, also, 
there may be a condition of lameness, varying in degree, while at 
others, again, the irregularity of action at the hock will be so slight 
as to escape detection, the animal betraying no appearance of its 
existence. 

A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an " un- 
soundness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe 
labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. And 
yet the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, since it 
generally yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion 
is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the 
bulging will always constitute a blemish. 

Treatment. — On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits 
the signs of an acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue 
this by the use of cold applications as intermittent or constant irriga- 
tion or an ice poultice; but when these have exhausted their effect 



350 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

and the swelling has assumed better defined boundaries, and the infil- 
tration of the tendons or of the ligaments is all that remains of a 
morbid state, then every effort must be directed to the object of effect- 
ing its absorption and reducing its dimensions by pressure and other 
methods. The medicaments most to be trusted are blisters of can- 
tharides and frictions with ointments of iodyie, or, preferably, 
biniodide of mercury. Mercurial agents alone, by their therapeutic 
properties or by means of the artificial bandages which they furnish 
by their incrustations when their vesicatory effects are exhausted, 
will give good results in some instances by a single application, and 
often by repeated applications. The use of the firing iron must, 
however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness or 
to stimulate the absorption. We believe that its early application 
ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation 
is firmly organized. Firing in dull points or in lines will prove as 
beneficial in curb as in any other disease of a similar nature. 

LACERATED TENDONS. 

This form of injury, whether of a simple or of a compound char- 
acter, may become a lesion of a very serious nature, and will usually 
require long and careful treatment, which may yet prove unavailing 
in consequence either of the intrinsically fatal character of the wound 
itself or the complications which have rendered it incurable. 

Cause. — Like all similar injuries, these are the result of traumatic 
violence, such as contact with objects both blunt and sharp; a curb- 
stone in the city; in the country, a tree stump or a fence, especially 
one of wire. It may easily occur to a runaway horse when he is 
•• whipped " with fragments of harness or " flogged " by fragments of 
splintered shafts " thrashing" his legs, or by the contact of his legs 
with the wagon he has overturned and shattered with his heels while 
disengaging himself from its wreck. 

Symptoms.— It is not always necessary that the skin should be 
involved in this form of injury. On the contrary, the tegument is 
frequently left entirely intact, especially when the injury follows 
infectious diseases or occurs during light exercise after long periods 
of rest in the stable. Yet. again, the skin may be cut through and 
the tendons nearly severed. A point a little above the fetlock is 
usually the seat of the injury. But irrespective of this, and whether 
the skin is or is not implicated, the symptoms very much resemble 
those of a fracture. There is excessive mobility, at least more than 
in a normal state, with more or less inability to carry weight. There 
may be swelling of the parts, and on passing the hands carefully 
along the tendon to the point of division the stumps of the divided 
structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps wholly divided. 
The position of the animal while at rest and standing is peculiar and 
characteristic. While the heels are well placed on the ground, the 



LACERATED TENDONS. 351 

toe is correspondingly elevated, with a tendency to turn up — a form 
of breaking down which was described when speaking of the fracture 
of the sesamoids. Carrying weight is done only with considerable 
difficulty, but with comparatively little pain, and the animal will 
unconsciously continue to move the leg as if in great suffering, not- 
withstanding the fact that his general condition may be very good 
and his appetite unimpaired. 

The effect upon the general organism of compound lacerated 
wounds of tendinous structures, or those which are associated with 
injuries of the skin, are different. The wound becomes in a short time 
the seat of a high degree of inflammation with abundant suppuration, 
filling it from the bottom; and the tendon, whether as the result of 
the bruise or of the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated 
pus, undergoes a process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing 
ensue. This complicates the case, and probably some form of tendi- 
nous synovitis follows, running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if 
close to a joint, with a fatal result. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be very con- 
servative. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from 
six weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before 
the formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm 
union between the tendinous stumps. 

Treatment. — As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the 
necessity is imperative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to se- 
cure as perfect a state of immobility as can be obtained compatibly 
with the disposition of the patient; the natural opposition of the 
animal, sometimes ill-tempered and fractious at best, under the neces- 
sary restraint, causing at times much embarrassment to the practi- 
tioner in applying the necessary treatment. Without the necessary 
immobility no close connection of the ends of the tendons can be 
secured. To fulfill this necessary condition the posterior part of the 
foot and the fetlock, must be supported and the traction performed 
by them relieved, an object which can be obtained by the use of the 
high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly better accomplished with a 
shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 2| inches back of the 
heels. The perfect immobility of the legs is obtained in the same way 
as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, bandages, iron appa- 
ratus, plaster of adhesive mixtures, and similar means. So long as 
the dressings remain in place undisturbed, and no chafing or other 
evidence of pain is present, the dressings may be continued without 
changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a period sufficient to 
insure the perfect union of the tendons. But for a compound lesion, 
when there is laceration of the skin, some special care is necessary. 
The wound must be carefully watched and the dressings removed 
at intervals of a few days, or as often as may be needful, all of which 



352 DISEASES OF THE HOBSB. 

additional manipulation and extra nursing, however indispensable, 
-till adds to the gravity of the ease and renders the prognosis more 
and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed in threads of 
various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of mortification 
healthy granulations should form and rill up the wound, still very 
careful attention will he required, the granulating ends of the tendons 
having a tendency to bulge between the edges of the skin and to 
assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a 
warty or cauliflower appearance, the removal of which becomes a 
troublesome matter. 

The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of vary- 
ing degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which 
becomes an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but 
which may be promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alter- 
ative and absorbent mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with 
heels somewhat higher than usual will prove a comfort to the animal 
and aid in moderating and relieving the tension of the tendons. 

RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR METATARSI. 

This is a muscle of the anterior part of the shank. It is situated 
in front of the tibia, and is of peculiar formation, being composed of 
a muscular portion with a very powerful tendon, which are at first 
distinct and separate, to be intimately united lower down, and termi- 
nating at the lower end by a division into four tendinous hands. It 
is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, and also acts as a 
strong means of support for the stifle joint, that is, of the articulation 
of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of which it passes. 
Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe stretching 
and straining, and a rupture of some of its fibers is sometimes the 
consequence. 

Cause. — This injury may be the result of a violent effort of the 
animal in leaping over a high obstacle; in missing his foothold and 
suddenly slipping backward while powerfully grasping the ground 
with the feet in striving to start a heavily loaded vehicle; or in mak- 
ing a violent effort to prevent a probable fall: or in attempting to 
lift the feet from miry ground. 

Symptoms. The accident is immediately followed by disability 
which will vary according to the true seat of the injury and the 
period of its duration. This rupture will not prevent the horse from 
standing perfectly and firmly on hi- feet when kept at rest, and 
while no muscular efforts are required from him there is no appear- 
ance of any lesion or unsoundness. An attempt to move him hack- 
ward, however, will cause him to throw all his weight upon his hind 
quarters, and he will refuse to raise his foot from the ground. If 
compelled to do so. or required to move forward, the hock being no 
longer capable of flexion, the muscle winch effects that movement 



LACERATED TENDONS. 353 

being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the extensors, acting 
freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock down, will 
be suddenly, with a jerk, extended on the tibia or shank bone, and 
simultaneously with this the tendo-Achillis, the cord of the hock, the 
tendons of the extensors of the hock will be put in a wrinkled and 
relaxed condition. The leg is behind the animal and the toe rests 
on the ground. Examination of the fore part of the shank from the 
stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some 
swelling and heat at the seat of the lesion. 

Treatment. — Our experience with injuries of this form satisfies us 
that, generally speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Very few 
instances have come to our knowledge in which radical recovery has 
not been obtained, provided a sufficient time has been allowed for 
union to take place. The more flexed the leg can be kept, the quicker 
will it heal. 

In these cases, as in those already considered of simple laceration of 
tendons, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment 
of fractures; as near as coaptation of the lacerated ends is possible, 
with immobility, being the necessary conditions to secure. The first 
is a matter of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and 
some have recommended instead the application of charges or blisters 
in order to compel the animal to keep more quiet. 

To secure the necessary immobility the animal should be placed in 
slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be 
tied short, and restrained from any backward movement by ropes or 
boards, and he should, moreover, be kept in as quiet a temper as pos- 
sible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks 
must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight, 
before he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his 
labor, which should for a time be light and easy, and gradually, if 
ever, increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong ani- 
mal. If he is used too soon the newly formed tissue between the ends 
of the muscle will be apt to stretch and leave the flexor muscle too 
long and permanently displaced. 

SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 

Among these there are three which will principally occupy our 
attention, and these may be considered as forming a single group. In 
some parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures 
of a saclike formation, containing an oily substance designed for th<> 
lubrication of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose 
of facilitating the movements of the tendons which pass over them. 
These little sacs or muco-s3movial capsules are liable under peculiar 
conditions of traumatism to become subject to a diseased process, 
H. Doc. Tit:,, 59-2 23 



354 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

which consists principally in a hypersecretion of their contents and 
an increase in dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar patho- 
logical changes of such a character as to disable an animal, and in 
many instances to cause serious blemishes which can not but depre- 
ciate his value. These growths, which arc known as hygromata, may 
result from external violence, as blows or bruises, and may appear in 
the form of small, soft tumors, painless and not inflammatory in 
character, but, by a repetition of the cause or renewal of violence, 
likely to acquire increased severity. Severe inflammation, with sup- 
puration, may follow, which, filling up the cavity, the walls will 
become thickened and hard, resulting in the formation of a tumor. 

The elbow, the knee, and the hock are the parts of the body where 
these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their peculiar 
shape and the position they occupy they have received the denomina- 
tion of " capped.'''' They will be considered in their peculiar aspect. 

CAPPED ELBOW. 

Capped elbow, or " shoe boil," is a term applied to an enlargement 
often found at the point of the elbow. 

Cause. — This lesion is due to injury or pressure of the part 
while it is resting on the ground. The horse, unlike the cow, does not 
rest directly on the under surface of the sternum, or breastbone, on 
account of its sharp, ridgelike formation. He rests more on the side 
of the breastbone and chest, and consequently the leg which is flexed 
under the body is subject to considerable pressure. If the leg is flexed 
under the body so that the hoof or shoe is directly in contact with the 
elbow, which may occur in horses having an extremely long cannon 
bone or excessive length in the shoes, the greater part of the weight 
of the chest is concentrated at this point and the pressure may cause a 
bruise or an inflammation. 

Symptoms. — Under these conditions the point of the elbow may 
become swollen and tender and exhibit heat and pain. This swelling 
may not only cover the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaches the 
axilla and assumes such proportions that there is great difficulty in 
using the leg. the animal showing signs of lameness even to the extent 
of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This edematous con- 
dition, however, does not remain stationary. It may by degrees 
subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become 
more distinctly defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is 
reduced to a soft, round, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or 
pain. There is then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent 
collection, and following the puncture of its walls with the knife 
there will be an escape of blood, of serum, or of pus, as the case may 
be, in variable quantities. In either case, but principally in that of 
the cystic form, the tumor will be found to be subdivided by septa, or 
bands running in various directions. 



CAPPED ELBOW. 355 

Various changes will follow the opening of the tumor and the 
escape of its contents. In a majority of cases the process of cica- 
trization will take place, and the cavity fill up by granulation, the 
discharge, at first abundant, gradually diminishing and the wound 
closing, usually without leaving any mark. At times, however, and 
especially if the disease has several times repeated its course, there 
may remain a pendulous sac, partly obliterated, which a sufficient 
amount of excitement or irritation may soon restore to its previous 
dimensions and condition. 

In other cases an entirely different process takes place. The walls 
of the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the 
granulations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and fill up 
the cavity, and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back 
of the elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the 
skin. It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined 
in its contour, and may vary in size from that of a small apple to 
that of a child's head. 

This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting 
all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only. 
The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large 
edematous swelling which interferes with the work of the animal, 
may justify a much milder prognosis, and, aside from their liability 
to recur, may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections. 

Treatment. — So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal 
bad feature of capped elbow the most important consideration is that 
of devising a means for its prevention. To prevent the animal from 
lying down is evidently the simplest method of keeping the heels and 
the elbow apart; but the impracticability of this prescription is 
apparent, since a majority of animals are obliged to lie down when 
they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on their feet. 
The question of shoeing here enters into the discussion. The shorten- 
ing of the inside branch of the shoe, which is the one with which the 
pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the truncated 
end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possibility of 
pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the skin of 
the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, or by 
bandaging the heel with bags or covering it with boots, is considered 
by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage to be 
secured by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number of 
horses which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is inter- 
mitted is considered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming 
the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening 
a piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall 
or manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive, perhaps, but never- 
theless practical and followed by good results. 



356 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The therapeutic treatment is also important. The edematous swell- 
ing, when recognized by its external appearance and the existing 
inflammation, should be treated without delay. Warm fomentations, 
repeated several times daily, are then indicated, the degree of warmth 
being as high as can be borne comfortably. They are easily applied 
and often yield decided relief in a few hours. In some cases, how- 
ever, astringents are w~r<\ in preference, in the form of poultices m - 
pastes, which are made to cover the entire swelling and allowed to 
remain, drying after a short time, it is true, and perhaps falling oil', 
hut easily renewed and reapplied. An excellent astringent for these 
cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar (acetate of 
lime), and the whole swelling is then covered with a thick coating of 
sofi clay made into a ma>s with water. 

These simple remedies are often all that is required. Under their 
use the swelling passes oil' by degrees and after a short interval the 
animal is fit for work again; but not uncommonly instead of this a 
-welling develops, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a sensation 
of crepitation when pressure is applied with the finger. It is soft 
and evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened, with a good- 
sized incision, discharges a certain amount of blood, partly liquid 
and partly coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow. 
The cavity should then be well washed out ami a plug of oakum 
introduced, leaving a small portion protruding through the cut to 
prevent it from closing prematurely. It may be taken off the next 
dav. and a daily cleansing will then be all that is necessary. In 
another case the tumor become:- very soft in its whole extent, with 
evident fluctuation and a well-defined form. The discharge of the 
fluid is then indicated, and a free incision will be followed by the 
escape of a quantity of thin, yellowish liquid from a single sac. The 
wound should be kept clean and dressed frequently in order to insure 
prompt healing. But if the cavity is found to be subdivided in its 
interior by numerous bands, and the cyst proves to be multilocular. 
the partition- should be torn out with the fingers, and the cavity 
then treated in the same manner as the unilocular sac. In -till 
another case the swelling may be warm and painful with indistinct 
fluctuation, or fluctuation only at a certain point. This indicate- an 
abscess, and necessitates an incision to drain the pus. followed by the 
careful cleansing and dressing of the wound. 

I'.nt cases occur in which all the treatment that has been described 
fails to effect a full recovery, and instead a fibrous tumor begins to 
develop. A change of treatment is. of course, then in order. The 
inflammation being chronic will necessitate stimulating treatment of 
the part in order to increase the process of absorption. We must 
again draw upon the resources of experience in the form of blisters, 
the fomentations, the iodine and the mercurial ointments as hereto- 



CAPPED KNEE. 357 

fore mentioned. Good results may always be insured from their 
judicious and timely administration. In applying the powerful min- 
eral inunctions much patience and wisdom are required. It should be 
done by carefully and perseveringly rubbing in small quantities 
daily; it should be done softly and gently, not with force of arms, 
nor with the expectation of producing an astonishing effect by heavy 
dosing and main strength in a few hours; it should be after the 
manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The object is to 
induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the entire mass is 
penetrated. Of course cases will be encountered which resist all 
forms of medical treatment. The tumor remains as a fixed fact; it 
continues to grow ; it is large and pendulous at the elbow ; its weight 
is estimated in pounds; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfort- 
able, burdensome mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and 
being itself excoriated in turn ; mild treatment has failed and is no 
longer to be relied on. 

Eesort must now be made to surgical methods, and here again we 
must choose between the ligature, the cautery, and the knife. Each 
has its advocates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one 
of the difficulties arises in connection with the application and reten- 
tion of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been 
performed. It is a somewhat difficult problem, owing to the con- 
formation and proportions of the bodv of the patient, and involves 
the exercise of a considerable amount of practical ingenuity to adjust 
and retain the appliances necessary to insure a good final result. 

In the long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped 
elbow I have thus far omitted any mention of one method which is 
practiced and commended by not a few. I refer to the use of setons, 
introduced through the tumor. My own experience and the observa- 
tion of many failures from this method led me to abandon it. 

CAPPED KNEE. 

The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of the cannon, as 
it glides in front of the kneejoint, is assisted by one of the little bursas 
before mentioned, and when this becomes the seat of a dropsical col- 
lection a hygroma is formed and the knee is " capped.' 1 Though 
somewhat analogous in its history to the capped elbow, there are 
points of difference betAveen them. Their development may prove a 
source of great annoyance from the fact of the blemish which they 
constitute. 

Cause. — The capped knee presents itself under various conditions. 
It is sometimes the result of a bruise or contusion, often repeated, 
inflicted upon himself by a horse addicted to the habit of pawing 
while in the stable and striking the front of the stall with his knees. 
Another class of patients is formed of those weak-kneed animals 
which are subject to falling and bruising the front of the joint against 
the ground, the results not being always of the same character. 



358 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Symptoms. — The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a 
severe contusion with swelling, edema, heat, and pain. The joint 
becomes so stiff and rigid that it interferes with locomotion and yet 
under careful simple treatment the trouble may disappear. 

Or. again, instead of altogether passing off, the edema may dimin- 
ish in extent, becoming more defined in form and remain as a swelling 
on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the crushing of small 
blood vessels, this is necessarily full of blood. The swelling is some- 
what soft, diffuse, not painful, more or less fluctuating, and after a 
few days becomes crepitant under the pressure of the hand. 

Instead of being filled with blood the swelling may be full of serum, 
as often occurs when violence, though perhaps slight, has been fre- 
quently repeated. In that case the swelling is generally well defined, 
soft, and painless, with more or less fluctuation, and it may even 
become pendulous. In other cases the swelling may be of an acute 
inflammatory nature with heat and pain, accompanied by stiffness of 
the joint. This leads to the formation of an abscess. AVhatever the 
nature of these swellings may be, either full of blood, serum, or pus. 
some blemish usually remains after treatment. 

Prognosis. — Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive 
lesions are usually of trifling account, a different prognosis must be 
pronounced when the lesion assumes more important dimensions; and 
though a capped knee may be comparatively an affair of little impor- 
tance we have seen cases where not only extensive blemishes were left 
to disfigure the patient, but where the animals had become worthless 
in consequence of the extension of the diseased process to the various 
elements of structure composing the joint, and giving rise to the most 
complicated cases of carpitis. 

T reatment. — Usually the first symptom of trobule is the edematous 
swelling on the front of the " knee." The prevention of the inflam- 
mation and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object in view, 
and it may be realized by the use of warm water fomentations or 
compresses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in a 
simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract, 
alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil 
meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place 
by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if 
the abscess is in process of formation, by the active excretion of pus. 
If an abscess forms in spite of these precautions it may be treated 
surgically in several ways. 

In one it should !>c done by a careful incision, which will allow the 
escape of the blood or the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in 
the sac: in another it may be by mean- of a seton, in order that the 
discharge may be maintained and allowed to escape: and for another 
the more caution- mode may be adopted of emptying the cavity by 



CAPPED HOCK. 359 

means of punctures with small trocars or aspirators. The danger 
attending this last method arises from the possible sloughing of large 
portions of the skin, while that attending the first is the hazard of the 
possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the capsular liga- 
ment of the knee, with the possibility of an open joint in prospect. 

As we have remarked, the cavity after being emptied may rapidly 
close and leave in a short time but slight traces of its previous exist- 
ence. But in many, if not in a majority, of cases there will remain 
after the cicatrization is complete a thickening or organized exuda- 
tion at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a 
diffused infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate 
attention, from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and 
permanent body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased struc- 
ture, blisters are recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promot- 
ing the process of absorption. 

If this treatment fails, the use of iodine and mercurial preparations 
is recommended. 

Plain mercurial or plain iodine ointment, or both in combination as 
iodide of mercury, are commonly used, and may either be applied 
moderately and by gentle degrees, as we have suggested, or more 
freely and vigorously with a view to more immediate effects, which, 
however, will also be more superficial. The use of the firing iron 
applied deeply with fine points is then to be strongly recommended, to 
be followed by blisters and various liniments. This course may gen- 
erally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by satisfactory results. 

While the treatment is in progress it will, of course, be necessary to 
secure the animal in such a manner that a recurrence of the injury 
will be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously 
responsible. 

CAPPED HOCK. 

A bad habit prevails among some horses of rubbing or striking the 
partitions of their stalls with their hocks, with the result of an injury 
which shows itself on the upper point of that bone, the summit of the 
os calcis. From its analogy to the condition of capped elbow the 
designation of capped hock has been applied to this condition. 

Symptoms. — A capped hock is therefore but the development of a 
bruise at the point of the hock, which if many times repeated may 
excite an inflammatory process, with all its usual external symptoms 
of swelling, heat, soreness, and the rest of the now familiar phenom- 
ena. The swelling is at first diffused, extending more or less on the 
exterior part of the hock, and in a few instances running up along 
the tendons and muscles of the back of the shank. Soon, however, 
unless the irritating causes are continued and repeated, the edema 
diminishes, and, becoming more defined in its external outlines, leaves 
the hock capped with a hygroma. The hygroma, at the very begin- 



360 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

niii2- of the trouble, contains a bloody serosity which soon becomes 
strictly serum, and this, through the influence of an acute inflamma- 
tory action, is Liable to undergo a change which converts it into the 
usual purulent product of suppuration. 

The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the 
diagnosis, but there arc a few signs which may contribute toward a 
nicer identification of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under 
the appearance of an acute edematous swelling, or as a bloody serous 
collection, or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remark- 
able local manifestation other than such as have already passed under 
our survey in considering similar cases, nor will it be likely to inter- 
fere with the functions which belong to the member in question, unless 
it assumes very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as 
well as on the summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite 
high, if suppuration is developing, if there is a true abscess, or — and 
this is a common complication — especially when the kicking or rub- 
bing of the animal is frequently recurring, then, besides the local 
trouble of the cyst or of the abscess, the bones become diseased and 
the periosteum inflamed; perhaps the superior ends of the bone 
and its fibro-cartilage become affected, and a simple lesion or bruise, 
whatever it may have been, becomes complicated with periostitis and 
ostitis, and is naturally accompanied with lameness, developed in a 
greater or less degree, which in some cases may be permanent and 
in others increased by work. But these complications are not common 
or frequent. 

Treatment. — Capped hocks are in many cases amenable to treat- 
ment, and yet they often become the opprobrium of the practitioner 
by remaining, as they frequently do. an eyesore on the top of the hock ; 
not interfering, it is true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon 
him the stigma of what, in human estimation. is a most unreliable and 
objectionable reputation, to wit, that of being an habitual "kicker," 
and, worse than all. one that kicks when he receives his provender. 

The maxim that " an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure " 
fits the present case very neatly. A horse whose hocks have a some- 
what puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and 
flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of his addictedness to 
this bad habit, lint he may easily be either convicted or exonerated— 
a little watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict 
is one of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted 
against a continuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the 
stall with straw mats or mattresses ami covering the post- with similar 
material, in such a manner that no hard surface shall be exposed with 
which to come in contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. He 
may jar his frame when he kicks, but even then there will be less 



CAPPED HOCK. 361 

force in the concussion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and 
cuts and abrasions can not be inflicted by a properly made cushion. 
Hobbles are also rightly recommended with a view to the required 
restraint of motion, so applied as to secure the leg with which the 
kicking is performed, or even both hind legs, in such a manner as 
shall not interfere with the movements of lying down and rising 
again and yet preventing that of kicking backward. Boots similar in 
pattern to those which are used for the prevention of shoe boil are 
also prescribed. These are placed above the hock and retained by 
straps tightly fastened. But we apprehend that the difficulty of 
retaining them in the proper place without the danger of chafing 
from the tightness of the straps might form an objection to their use. 
Notwithstanding all precautions, hocks will be capped in the future as 
in the past, and the study of their treatment will always be in order. 
The mode of dealing with them will, of course, be greatly in- 
fluenced by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is 
excessive and the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the 
application of warm water will be very beneficial. The leg should be 
well fomented several times a day, for from fifteen to twenty minutes 
each time, a strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to 
the water, and after each application swathed with flannel bandages 
soaked in the same warm mixture. A few days of this treatment will 
usually effect a resolution of the inflammation, if not complete, at 
least sufficiently so to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and 
exhibit its peculiar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its 
removal and the method of accomplishing it are then to be considered, 
with the question of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the 
fluid is of a purulent character the indication is in favor of its imme- 
diate discharge — no time should be lost, and it should be by means of 
a small opening made with a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid 
is a serosity, we prefer to remove it by punctures with a very small 
trocar. Our reason for special caution in these cases is our fear 
of the possibility of the existence of diseased conditions of a severe 
character in the pseudo joint. For the same reason we prefer the 
treatment of those growths by external applications. In the first 
stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister, such as the cantharidate 
of collodium, entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not yet completely 
formed, when the inflammation has subsided, will be of great benefit 
by its stimulating effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure 
which, when dry, it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the 
thickening of the growth fails to diminish, it should be treated with 
some of the iodine preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in 
combination with potassium, mercury, etc., of various strengths and 
in various proportions. My opinion of setons is not favorable, but 
the actual cautery, by deep and fine firing, in points — needle cauteri- 



362 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

zation — I believe to be the best mode of treatment, and especially 
when applied early. 

A very satisfactory way to treat these eases is to burst the swelling 
by pressure from without. A strap or strong linen bandage is placed 
about the hock pressing on the bursa while the affected leg is on the 
around, the other hind foot being lifted up. When the bandage is in 
place release the leg and the horse will violently Hex the bandaged 
limb and produce pressure on the bursa with consequent bursting and 
discharging of its contents. 

Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience 
must be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow and 
the skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condi- 
tion, if effected at all, will only take place after weeks added to other 
weeks of medical treatment and patient waiting. 

INTERFERING, AND SPEEDY CUTS. 

These designations belong to certain special injuries of the ex- 
tremities, produced by similar causes, giving rise to kindred patho- 
logical lesions with allied phenomena, requiring about the same 
treatment and often followed by the same results, to wit, a blemish 
which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of unsoundness, 
but in some special circumstances interfere with his ability to labor. 
It is known as " interfering*' when the location of the trouble is the 
inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is called 
" speedy cut " when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little 
below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon. 
It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity, 
and giving rise to various lesions. (See also page 373.) 

Symptoms. — At times the injury is too slight to be seriously 
noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. At other 
times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholly, and it may for 
the time cause a sufficient amount of pain to check the motion of the 
animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability to 
use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three 
legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be 
a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will be- 
come much swollen, hot, and so painful to the touch that the motion 
of the knee or the fetlock will be sufficiently disturbed to cause lame- 
ness of a degree of severity corresponding with that of the lesion. 
Following the subsidence of this diffused and edematous swelling is 
sometimes the formation of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock. 
This may be soft at fust or become so by degrees, with fluctuation, 
its contents being at first extravasated blood, and Later a serosity; or, 
if there has been a sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become 
suppurative. The result of the fault of interfering may thus be 



INTERFERING. 363 

exhibited, whether at the knee or at the fetlock, as characterized by 
all the pathological conditions which have appeared as accompani- 
ments of capped knee or capped hock. If, in consequence of the force 
of the blow or blows, the inflammation has been unusually severe, 
a mortification of the skin may become one of the consequences, a 
slough taking place, succeeded by a cutaneous ulcer on the inside of 
the fetlock or where the greater number of the original wounds are 
inflicted. If the interfering has been often repeated it may be fol- 
lowed by another condition, which has been considered in our remarks 
upon other affections. It is a plastic exudation or thickening of the 
parts, which are commonly said to have become " callous," and the 
effect of it is to destroy the regularity of the outlines of the joint to an 
extent which constitutes a serious blemish, which will be permanent, 
and according to the degree of the aberration from the natural and 
symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the commercial value of 
the animal. 

An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms 
which, from the simplest form of a mere " touching," may succes- 
sively assume the serious characters of an ugly cicatrix, a hard, 
plastic swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis 
with its sequelae. 

If a single and constantly recurring cause — a blow — be the starting 
point in interfering, we may now consider the subject of the predispo- 
sition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal, 
and the conditions which lead to and accompany it. These are 
numerous, but the first in frequency and importance is peculiarity of 
conformation in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include 
horses whose chests are narrow and whose legs do not stand straight 
and upright, but are crooked and pigeon-toed in and out. The second 
class includes those whose legs are weak, either from youth or hard 
labor, or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up 
of those having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly 
shod with unnecessarily wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists 
of those that are affected with swollen fetlocks or chronic edematous 
swelling of the leg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar 
action, as those whose knee action is very high, and it is these that 
furnish most of the cases of speedy cut. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious 
one. However violent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent 
complications of a troublesome nature occur. The principal evil 
attending it is a liability to be followed by a thickened or callous 
deposit which is not only an eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a 
new and increased predisposition. The remark that " an animal 
which has interfered once is always liable to interfere," is often con- 
firmed and sanctioned by a recurrence of the trouble. 



364 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — Another point in which there is a resemblance between 
this lesion and others which we have considered is in its responsive- 
ness to the same treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of 
warm fomentations, soothing applications, and astringent and resolv- 
ent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through 
the list. II' tin' swelling assumes the character of a serous collection, 
pressure, cold water, and bandages will contribute to its removal. If 
suppuration seems to he established, and the swelling assumes the 
character of a developing abscess, the hot poultices of flaxseed or of 
boiled vegetables and the embrocations of sedative ointments, those 
of basilicon, or vaseline, impregnated with preparations of opium or 
belladonna; — all these recommend themselves by their general adapta- 
tion and the beneficial results which have followed their administra- 
tion, not less in one case than in another. When an abscess has 
formed and is fluctuating, it should be carefully but fully opened to 
evacuate the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is necessary in 
emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflammation 
to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities 
have been emptied and have closed by rilling up with granulations, 
or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there 
remains in either case a plastic exudation and a tendency to the cal- 
lous organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various 
forms, including those of cantharides, of mercury, and of iodine, are 
then indicated, principally in the early stages, as it is then that their 
effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery, 
with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the enlargement, has 
in our hands, when employed in the very early stages of its forma- 
tion, nearly always brought on a radical recovery with complete 
absorption of the thickening. 

STRING HALT. 

This is an involuntary movement of one or both hind legs, in which 
the foot is suddenly and spasmodically lifted from the ground much 
higher than it is normally carried, with excessive flexion of one bone 
upon the other. r I nis peculiarity is usually prominent, although it 
may disappear with work, only to reappear after a short rest. Some- 
times it is most apparent at a trot, sometimes at a walk, and other 
times only when turned around: or it may not be affected by the gait 
of the horse. It doe- not seem to be influenced by the horse's age 
young and old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are some- 
times very slight. It has been noticed as occurring in an animal when 
backing out of his stable and ceasing immediately after. In some 
animals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the 
affected leg. and it is not noticed when he moves straight forward. 
That this peculiar action interferes with facility of locomotion and 



THROMBOSIS. 365 

detracts from a horse's claim to soundness can not for a moment be 
denied. 

Cause. — Veterinarians and pathologists are yet in doubt in respect 
to the cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature. 
Whether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative charac- 
ter; whether it springs from a malformation; whether it is a short- 
ening of the ligaments, a chronic inflammation of the sciatic nerve, or 
a disease of the spinal cord ; whether it is purely a muscular or purely 
a neiwous lesion, or a compound of both — it still continues, if an 
etiologist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of 
his special studies, to be his opprobrium and his puzzle. 

Treatment. — When there is a known or suspected cause the treat- 
ment should be directed toward this factor. If due to local inflamma- 
tion of the hock or foot, only this local lesion should be treated. If 
it remains after the local lesion has healed, or if we have no assignable 
cause, the best results have followed the sectioning of the lateral 
extensor of the foot. A competent veterinarian alone should under- 
take this operation. 

THROMBOSIS. 

There are certain forms of lameness which are very peculiar in their 
manifestation, and which to the nonprofessional mind must appear to 
belong to the domain of mystery or theory instead of occupying a 
well-established position among the subjects of equine pathology. 
Yet they are no less susceptible of actual demonstration and of pos- 
itive comprehension than many facts which, plain and familiar to the 
general understanding now, were once ranked among things occult 
and unsearchable. A thrombus, considered as a cause of lameness, 
may find a place among these understood mysteries. 

Cause. — Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the 
blood vessels, and also in aneurisms, clots of blood are sometimes 
formed in the arteries and find their way in the general circulation. 
At first, while very small, or sufficiently so to pass from one vessel to 
another, they move from a small vessel to a larger, and from that to 
one still larger, constantly increasing in size until at some given point, 
from their inability to enter smaller vessels, their movement is 
finally arrested. The artery is thus effectually dammed, and the clot 
in a short time cuts off completely the supply of blood from the parts 
beyoixl. This is thrombosis, and it often gives rise to sudden and 
excessive lameness of a very painful character. 

/Symptoms. — Thrombi may form in any of the arteries of the body, 
and doubtless have been the cause of many cases of lameness which 
could never be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their 
diagnosis will probably fail to be made out with certainty, but when 
situated in the larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may 
be excited. In some cases they may even be recognized with posi- 



366 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tive accuracy, as when the vessels which supply the posterior extremi- 
ties are affected by the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its 
ramifications. 

The existence of thrombosis of the arteries of the hind leg may 
always be suspected when the following history is known: The gen- 
eral health of the animal is good, but symptoms of Lameness in one of 
the legs have been developed, becoming more market 1 as he is worked, 
and especially when driven at a fast gait. l>ut the disturbance is not 
permanent, and the lameness disappears almost immediately upon bis 
being permitted to rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, how- 
ever, and, though he may walk normally, he will, when made to trot, 
very soon begin to slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble, 
and if urged to increase his speed will become lamer and lamer: an 
abundant perspiration will break out: he will refuse to go, and if 
forced he shows weakness behind, seems ready to fall, and perhaps 
doe- fall. While on his feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up 
and down, and is kept from the ground as if the contact was too pain- 
ful to bear. If undisturbed this series of symptoms will gradually 
subside, sometimes very soon, and occasionally after a few hours he 
will return to an apparently perfect condition. A return to labor 
will lead to a renewal of the same incidents. 

A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of a thrombus in an 
artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed by the 
external symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of 
any other disease which might account for the lameness, and a mani- 
fest diminution of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity, 
when compared with the opposite side or with any other portion of 
the body; a sensation of cold attendant on the pain, but gradually 
subsiding as the pain subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the 
rest, has been reestablished throughout the extremity; all these are 
confirmatory circumstances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and 
absolute certainty is yet wanting. To establish the truth of the case 
the rectal exploration must be resorted to. The hands then, well pre- 
pared and carefully introduced into the rectum, must explore for the 
truth, first feeling for the large blood vessels which, divided at the 
aorta, separate to supply the right and left legs. These must be com- 
pared in respect to the pulsation and other particulars. The artery 
which is healthy will, of course, exhibit all the proper conditions of 
that state. On the other hand, if the vessel appears to the feel hard, 
more or less cordv. and pulseless, or giving a sensation of fluttering, 
as of a small volume of blood with a trickling motion passing through 
a confined space, the difference between the sides will make the case 
plain. The first will be the full flow of the circulation through an 
unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage of the fluid between 
the thrombus and the coats of the artery. In such a case the prog- 



SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. 367 

nosis is necessarily a grave one and the disease is more liable to grow 
worse than better. 

Treatment. — No form of treatment can be advised; and the suffer- 
ing of a helpless and useless animal can only be terminated by that 
which ends all. 

Cases occur, however, where this condition of the blood vessels 
exists in a much less degree, and the diseased condition is not suf- 
ficiently pronounced for final condemnation. There may even be 
a possibility of the absorption of the clot, or that an increase of the 
collateral circulation may be sufficient to supply the parts with blood. 
In such cases spontaneous recovery may follow moderate exercise 
in the pasture, field, or stable, or continuous light work may be 
given, but too much hope should not be placed in such treatment. 

SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. 

This is an affection which suggests to the mind the idea of mus- 
cular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many similar cases. 
If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or pinching of the 
spine in the region of the loins, he is by many pronounced to be 
" lame in the loins," or " sprained in the loins," or " weak in the 
kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle 
yielding to such a pressure is not a pathological sign, but is normal 
and significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which 
the definition of " sprains of the loins " may apply which are not 
strictly normal. 

Cause. — The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as 
the psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a 
rheumatic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the 
bones of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circula- 
tion, may give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms. 

Symptoms,. — The symptoms are characteristic of a loss of rigidity 
or firmness of the vertebral column, both when the animal is at rest 
and in action. In the former condition, or when at rest, there is an 
arched condition of the back and a constrained posture in standing, 
with the hind legs separated. In the latter there is a lateral, balan- 
cing movement at the loins, principally noticeable while the animal is 
in the act of trotting — a peculiar motion, sometimes referred to as a 
"crick in the back," or what the French call a tour de bateau. If, 
while in action, the animal is suddenly made to halt, the act is accom- 
panied with much pain, the back suddenly arching or bending later- 
ally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, as if unable 
to perform their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is only 
accomplished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This manifes- 
tation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when 
a repetition of the same symptoms will also occur. 



368 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed by n mod- 
erate yielding of the animal, it is, as before remarked, a good sign 
of health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful, 
and will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less, 
according to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even 
heavy harnessing, will develop this tenderness. In lying down he 
seems to suffer much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with 
groaning, and when compelled to rise does so only with great diffi- 
culty and seldom succeeds without repeated efforts. 

Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accom- 
panied by this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhibition, 
with an excessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree 
of swelling, will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion; 
and especially so if accompanied by a history of violent efforts, 
powerful muscular strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with 
the case. But if the symptoms have been of slow development and 
gradual increase, it becomes a more difficult task to determine whether 
the diagnosis points to pathological changes in the structure of the 
muscles or of the bones, the nervous centers, or the blood vessels of 
the region. And yet it is important to decide as to which particular 
structure is affected in reference to the question of prognosis, since 
the degree of the gravity of the lesion will depend largely upon 
whether the disabled condition of the animal is due to an acute or a 
chronic disease. 

Treatment. — The prescription which will necessarily first of all 
suggest itself for sprains of the loins is rest. An animal so affected 
should be immediately placed in slings and none of his etforts to 
release himself should be allowed to succeed. Hot compresses, cold 
water douches, sweating applications, stimulating frictions, strength- 
ening charges, blistering ointments of cantha rides and the actual cau- 
tery, all have their advocates; but in no case can the immobility 
obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In many cases electricity 
has also yielded good results, where the weakness of the hind quarters 
was caused by disease of the nervous centers. 



DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. 

By A. A. Holcombi:, D. V. S.. 
Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. 

[Revised in 1903 by the author.] 

ANATOMICAL REVIEW OF THE FOOT. 

Iii a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to include 
only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the 
foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down. 

The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of 
the animal, in so far as veterinary surgery is concerned, for the reason 
that this member is subject to so many injuries and diseases, which. 
in part or in whole, render the patient unfit for the labor demanded 
of him. The old aphorism, " no foot no horse,'"' is as true to-day as 
when first expressed ; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multi- 
plied uses to which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction 
of hereditary defects and tendencies, have largely transformed the 
ancient " companion of the wind " into a very common piece of 
machinery which is often out of repair, and, at best, is but short- 
lived in its usefulness. 

Since the value of the horse depends largely, or even entirely, upon 
his ability to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion should 
be kept sound ; and to accomplish this end it is necessary not only to 
know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable, but, 
better still, how to prevent them. 

An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a 
knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may 
be involved in the diseased process; hence, first of all, the anatomical 
structures must be understood. (See also page 559.) 

The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which 
the other structures are built, and comprise the lower end of the can- 
non bone (the metacarpus in the fore leg, the metatarsus in the hind 
leg) , the two sesamoids, the large pastern or suffraginis, the small pas- 
tern or coronet, the small sesamoid or navicular bone, and the coffin 
bone or os pedis. (Plate XXXII, fig. 3.) 

The cannon bone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, is 
cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite perpendicular. 

The sesamoids occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three-faced 
pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the 
suffraginis, with the base of the pyramid down. 

H. I )<»<•. 7!>r>, r.!>-2 24 3G9 



370 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The suffraginis is a very compact bone, set in an oblique direction 
downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the 
coronet. 

The coronet is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the suffraginis 

and eoflinbone, in the same oblique direction. 

The naricuhtr hone is short, flattened above and below, and is 
attached to the coffin bone behind. 

The coffin bone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the 
horny box in which it is inclosed. 

All of these bones are covered on the surfaces which go to make up 
the joints with a cartilage of incrustation, while the portions between 
are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. 

The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any inter- 
ference with their function very largely impairs the value of the 
animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at 
the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to 
injury and disease. 

There are three of these joints — the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. 
They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by 
ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick, viscid fluid, 
called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing the 
joints. 

The fetlock joint is made by the union of the lower end of the can- 
non and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by 
the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that 
the joint is capable of a very extensive motion. These bones are held 
together by ligaments, only one of which — the suspensory — demands 
special mention. 

The suspensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, ex- 
tends down behind the cannon, lying behind the two splint bones, 
until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on either 
side of the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the 
sides of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As 
it crosses the sesamoids, on the posterior borders of the fetlock, it 
throws out fibers which hold it fast to these bones. (Plate XXXIT, 
fig. 2.) 

The pastern joint is made by the union of the two pastern bones. 

The coffin joint is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin, 
and small sesamoid, or navicular bones, the latter being set behind 
and beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone in such a way as to 
receive largely the weight of the small pastern. 

Three tendons serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. 
Two of these flex, or bend, the joints, while the other extends, or 
straightens, the column of bones. (Plate XXX. fig. 5.) 

The fexor pedis perforans, or deep flexor of the foot, passes down 



ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 371 

behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in 
front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of 
the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom of the coffin bone, 
after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is 
the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and, with it, the 
horny box. 

The -flexor pedis perforatus, or superficial flexor of the foot, follows 
the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middle of 
the ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the 
fetlock. 

The extensor pedis runs down in front of the leg, is attached on 
the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for function the 
straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. 

The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connect- 
ive tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and 
rounding off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof. 

The skin of the fetlock and ankle is generally characterized by its 
thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts 
of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most important 
part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band. 

The coronary band is that portion of the skin which secretes the 
horn of which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resem- 
bles the nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is com- 
posed of cylindrical tubes, which are held together by a tenacious 
opaque matter. The horn extends from the coronary band to the 
lower border of the hoof. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) 

The hoof is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and 
contains, besides the coffin, navicular, and part of the small pastern 
bones, the sensitive lamina?, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages. 
(Plate XXX, fig. 4.) 

The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped 
like the circumference of the foot, except that a V-shaped opening is 
left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower 
surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane 
covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin- 
bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall in that 
its tubes are not straight and from the fact that it scales off in pieces 
over the whole surface. 

The frog is a triangular-shaped body, divided into two equal parts 
by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It 
fills the triangular space in the sole, to which it is intimately attached 
by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner 
as the sole ; but it differs from both the wall and sole in that the horn 
is soft, moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function 
of the frog to destroy shock and to prevent slipping. 



372 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The sensitive lamina are thin plates of soft tissue, covering the 
cntiie anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great 
numbers, and by fitting into corresponding- grooves on the inner sur 
fiiec of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissue- is 
made complete. (Plate XXIX, fig. 1.) 

The plantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue placed behind 
and under the navicular and coffin bones, and resting on the sole and 
frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the 
column of bones and to destroy shock. (Plate XXIX, fig. 4.) 

The lateral cartilages are attached, one on either side, to the wings 
of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates of 
fibro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent 
structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced 
by the weight of the bodv while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate 
XXIX, fig. 2.) 

FAULTS OF CONFORMATION. 

A large percentage of horses have feet which are not perfect in 
conformation, and as a consequence of these imperfections they are 
especially predisposed* to certain injuries and disease^. 

Flatfoot is that condition in which the sole has little or no con- 
vexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy, 
lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the 
fore feet, which are generally broad, low heeled, and with a wall Less 
upright than is seen in the perfect foot. 

In flatfoot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the 
reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received 
on the entire plantar surface, as it rests upon the ground instead of on 
the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises 
of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the 
process is once established. Horses with flatfoot should be shod with 
a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the wall only, while the heels 
and frog are never to be pared. Flatfoot generally has weak walls, 
and. as a consequence, the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and 
t In- shoe cast. 

CI ah font is a term applied to such feet as have the wall set nearly 
perpendicular. When this condition is present the heels are high, 
the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of 
the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, 
especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. 
Clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons in severe cases; but, as 
a rule, special shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be 
adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered 
as much as possible, and a shoe put on with a long projecting toe 
piece, slightly turned up. while the heels of the shoe are to be made 
thin. 




c 
> 

H 



% 

4 




1/3 

i C 

i 



PLATE XXX 




Actual i/i 
of 'Walls 01 



The clamp and. nail re/ttedles app 



Quarter track with cross cutu 







To e < r/icJ; . It 'a// 1 em ■ > ■ 
absorption of coffin bone. 



LO 








CrajCked. h 

. 1 ITE R- C R_A ( ' K A ND I \ V. M KD1 V. S . 



1 2 a/iri ?>. Sound foot of two year old 



PLATE XX KIT. 




Badly contracted, foot. 



Sound /'/it flat foot- 

SOUND AND CONTRACTED FEET. 



JULIUS S 



INTERFERING. 373 

Crooked foot is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher 
than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown 
outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the 
toes close together. Animals with this deformity are " pigeon-toed, " 
and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. 
If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for 
the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is more near the center 
plane. 

When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the 
toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but 
one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than where both 
feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is 
not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to 
stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock 
joints. The deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will 
equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to 
protect the fetlocks from interfering. 

INTERFERING. 

An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite 
leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the 
fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under 
certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is 
seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes 
a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied by an 
abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, 
and thickening of the injured parts. (See also page 362.) 

Causes. — Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of inter- 
fering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of. the 
foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close 
together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the 
whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure 
to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from 
defective shoeing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of 
labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work, 
and because the chest or hips are too narrow. 

Symptoms. — Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily 
detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But 
very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes 
the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these 
parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such 
cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the 
animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected 
foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. 



374 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — When the trouble is duo to deformity or faulty con- 
formation, it may not be possible to overcome the defect. 

In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the 
Eetlock, or ankle, hoot must be used. In many instances interfering 
may be prevented by proper -hoeing. The outside heel and quarter 
of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change 
the relative position of the fetlock joint, by bringing it farther away 
from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot 
to pass by without striking. 

A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At 
the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may 
set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The 
shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. 

When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the 
injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially 
in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from 
long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated 
in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its 
natural condition. 

KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES. 

Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the 
relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones 
is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with 
the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the 
suffraginis, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center 
line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it 
nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. 

Causes. — Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the 
great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to 
the fact that, before birth, the legs were flexed; and time is required, 
after birth, for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt them- 
selves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body. 

Horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle as they grow 
old, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particu- 
larly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are 
exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accom- 
paniment to that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the 
toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high — a 
condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the hind feet. 

Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory liga- 
ment or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by 
disease of the fetlock joints. (See page -">17.) 

Treatment. — In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there 
is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without inter- 
ference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has com- 



WINDGALL. 375 

menced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by 
proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shorten- 
ing the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high ; or if the foot 
is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with 
thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with 
calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuck- 
ling are to be removed; but since this can not always be done, the 
time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service, 
particularly in those cases where both fore legs are affected, and it 
becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or secure relief by 
surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock 
and knee may be divided for the purpose of securing temporary relief. 
Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in 
some instances, effect a cure ; but a consideration of these measures 
properly belongs to the treatment of the diseases in which knuckling 
simply appears as a sequel. 

WINDGALL. 

Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating 
fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason 
of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They 
form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are 
most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, 
between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the 
hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. 
Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the 
tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt- 
hood has passed. (See also page 330.) 

Causes. — Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, 
where the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to 
sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in 
trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and 
in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car 
horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the 
ones most apt to develop windgalls in the hind legs. 

Symptoms. — The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot 
is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the 
ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause 
no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint 
the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal 
is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and 
walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. 
When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it 
may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation 
of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only 
to fill up again after renewed labor. In old eases the tumors are 



376 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the 
lime -alts. 

Treatment. — The large, putty joints of* suckling colts, as a rule. 
require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean 
up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. 

When the trouble is due to an injury, entire rest is to be secured 
by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches 
should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages, 
until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, 
when a blister is to be applied. 

In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief 
may be had by the use of cold compress bandages, elastic boots, or the 
red iodide of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended 
by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only 
by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced 
rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted upon, 
since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse. 

SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. 

Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as 
a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, 
runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that inter- 
fere, are particularly liable to this injury. 

Causes. — Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with dis- 
eases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, 
contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to 
sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stum- 
bling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or Hexed 
to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a 
rut, hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or strug- 
gles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up 
inflammation of the joint. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the 
severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply 
a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground 
and the joint is twisted a little. In cases more severe the joint swells, 
is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the 
animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the 
joint affected, and the toe rots on the ground. 

Treatment. — If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few 
days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. Where there is an intense 
lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant 
stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. 
When the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be 
applied. 



RUPTURE OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 377 

In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast 
work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, 
and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint 
should be kept completely at rest; and this condition is best secured 
by the application of the plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of 
fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and may 
be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard while wearing it. If 
they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be 
seemed, the patient must be kept in slings. 

In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on 
from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage 
is removed, a new one should be put on. The swelling, which always 
remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, 
may be largety dissipated and the joint strengthened by the use of the 
firing iron and blisters. 

A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its 
original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition 
of the injury. 

KUFTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. 

Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may 
happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in 
horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and espe- 
cially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this 
injury, and with these classes the seat of the trouble is nearly always 
in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more 
liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected. 

When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great, 
one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one 
or both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the liga- 
ment may rupture above the point of division. 

Symptoms. — The most common injury to the suspensory ligament 
is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble 
is proclaimed by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the 
affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extend- 
ing obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If 
the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and 
is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The 
patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the 
fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. 

When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesa- 
moids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and 
is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and. as the 
animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken 
off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and 



378 DISEASES OF THE BORSE. 

swelling of the part- at the point of injury, will enable anyone to 
make a diagnosis. 

Treatment. — Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how 
mild it may he. should always he treated by enforced rest of at least a 
month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages, 
firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides hlister 
should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. 
"When rupture has taken place, the patient should be put in slings, and 
a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of 
injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten 
days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be 
applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken oil', 
blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness; but it is use- 
less to expect a removal of all the thickening; for, in the process of 
repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain. 

In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good 
result-. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament inca- 
j^acitate the subject for anything but slow, light work. 

OVERREACH. 

An overreach is where the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures 
the heel or quarter of the fore foot. It rarely happens except when 
the animal is going fast, hence is most common in trotting and run- 
ning horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the 
animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters 
are most liable to the injury. 

Symptoms. — The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, 
the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. Where the 
hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot — an accident 
known among horsemen as "grabbing" — the shoe may be torn from 
the fore foot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed 
to overreaching are often "bad breakers," for the reason that the 
pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought 
back to the trotting gait. 

Treatment. — If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages 
applied for a few days will remove all of the soreness. If the parts 
are deeply cut. more or less suppuration will follow, and. as a rule, it 
i- well to poultice the parts for a day or two. after which cold baths 
may be w^^\. or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, 
ami a roller bandage. 

When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should 
never l>e driven fasl without quarter boots, which are specially made 
for the protection of the heels and quarters. 

If there is a disposition to "grab" the forward shoes, the trouble 
may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as 



CALK WOUNDS AND FROSTBITES. 379 

possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the 
hind shoe. When circumstances will permit of their use, the fore feet 
may be shod with the " tips " instead of the common shoe, as described 
in treatment for contracted heels. 

CALK WOUNDS. 

Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the 
coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each 
other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses, 
especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are 
more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly 
on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the 
animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of 
the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, 
and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive lamina?, the 
extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone. 

Treatment. — Preventive measures include the use of boots to pro- 
tect the coronet of the hind foot, and the use of a blunt calk on th? 
outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending 
instrument where the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep, 
and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective 
dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. 
Where the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration 
of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminae, etc., active 
measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by 
adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be 
used, followed by poultices if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing 
of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. Where the 
wound is deep between the horn and skin, especially over the anterior 
tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may 
be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow 
the directions laid down in the article on toe cracks. 

FROSTBITES. 

Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of 
the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen 
are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used 
for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This 
mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly 
lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In 
mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often 
intense, frostbites are not uncommon even among animals running at 
large. 

Symptoms. — When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and 
bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and 



380 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

swelling. In these eases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel 
off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and 
only mi increased sensitiveness to cold remains. 

In cases more severe irregular patches of skin are destroyed and 
after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. In 
the cases produced by low temperatures and deep snow the coronary 
band is the part most often affected. 

In many instances there is no destruction of the skin but simply a 
temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary 
band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and 
the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of 
the foot. The coronary band becomes hot. swollen, and painful, and 
after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight 
suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the 
suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an 
inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the 
cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is 
occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues 
beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. 

Treatment. — Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations 
followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil. 
When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should 
be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be 
treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized 
oil. a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chloride of zinc, 
with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases 
recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed 
skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence, 
unsightly scars are unavoidable. Where the coronary band is in- 
volved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of 
injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulat- 
ing the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the 
old and new horn no serious trouble is likely to be met with until the 
cleft is nearly grown out. when the soft tissues may be exposed by a 
breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even where this acci- 
dent happens final recover} 7 is secured by poulticing the foot until a 
sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury. 

QUITTOR. 

Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein 
the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that 
results in the formation of ;i slough followed by the elimination of the 
diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. 

For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four 



QUITTOR- 381 

classes, as suggested by Girard : (1) Cutaneous . quittor, which is 
known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coro- 
net ; (2) tendinous quittor ; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilagi- 
nous quittor. 

CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. 

Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and sub- 
cutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a 
slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals by suppuration. 

It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of 
the tissues involved ; for in all dense structures the swelling which 
accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This 
pressure not only adds to the patient's suffering but may at the same 
time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood 
vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often 
met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two- 
thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part 
of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters 
are undoubtedly most liable. 

Causes. — Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the 
cause of cutaneous quittor; yet there can be no question but that in 
the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known 
cause. For some reason, not yet satisfactorily explained, most cases 
happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has 
been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injuri- 
ous action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose 
force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country 
the most mud, accompanied by freezing and thawing weather, is 
seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of 
quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the 
mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen 
in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It 
may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons, 
when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more 
mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other sea- 
sons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these 
conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated 
with alkaline salts, which, like the mineral substances always found 
in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to 
conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an im- 
portant factor in the production of quittor." 

a A recent outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the 
author's observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to 
wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water 
by windmills, and the mud holes were caused by the waste water. More 
than fifty cases developed inside of two months, or during September and 



382 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

While (his disease attacks any and all classes of horses, ii is the 
large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs 
thai arc most often a Heeled. Horses well groomed and cared for in 
stables seem to be less Liable to the disease than those running ;l t large 
or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances. 

Symptoms.— Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, 
nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences 
of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, 
and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of 
the a fleeted foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red 
or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours 
the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes 
much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses 
to use the foot at all, but carries it in the air if compelled to move. 
As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both, 
and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, 
too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so in- 
tense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, 
loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows 
signs of suppuration within forty-eight to seventy-two hours after its 
first appearance: the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt be- 
neath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through., causing the 
discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead 
tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an 
open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and 
with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of 
skin, varying from 1 to '2\ inches in diameter, slough away at once, 
leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, 
suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal 
rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely 
removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and 
general symptoms subside. Where but a single tumor and abscess 
form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper 
treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks; but when two 
or more tumors are developed at once, or where the formation of one 
tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the suf- 
ferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case i< more difficult 
to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. 

October. In these fifty cases all forms of the disease and all possible compli- 
cations were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks 

of quittor are common, and the disease is so virulent that it has long been 
known as the "Leadville foot rot." The soil being rich in mineral matters is 
no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to 
he very common m the early springtime, when the streets are muddy from the 
melting snow and ice. 



QUITTOR. 383 

This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and 
subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. 

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quit- 
tor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals 
into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely 
to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses, 
must be avoided as much as possible. 

Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud 
are to be supplied. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impreg- 
nated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete pre- 
ventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleans- 
ing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. 
Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which 
the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. 

The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quit- 
tor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented 
for treatment. If the case is seen early — that is, before any of the 
signs of suppuration have developed — the affected foot is to be placed 
under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a 
further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this, 
put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. 
Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be. with 
flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold 
water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of suf- 
ficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bot- 
tom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandages. The stream of 
water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflamma- 
tion has entirely subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected 
in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced, the process should 
be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of linseed meal or 
boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied by 
intense pain, relief is secured and sloughing largely limited by a free 
incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into 
the tumor, care being taken not to entirely divide the coronary band. 
If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary. 

The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or 
longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting 
and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon 
gives relief to the overtension of the parts. 

In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, 
so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first pre- 
sented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor 
of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence in these cases a 
free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated, 
and the foot poulticed. 



384 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. 

I'.\ surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open 
sore or nicer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths 

and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by 
proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings i^ made of 
small halls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound 
and held in place by a roller bandage 1 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches 
wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. 

The remedies which mav he used to stimulate the healing process 
are many. and. as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or 
tinctures. 

In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichloride of mercury 1 
part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few 
grains of muriate of ammonia added to cause the mercury to dissolve. 
The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied 
to the w ound. 

Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with 
equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and 
/.inc. 5 grains of either to the ounce of water: chloride of zinc, 5 grains 
to the ounce; carbolic acid. 20 drops dissolved in an equal amount of 
glycerin ami added to 1 ounce of water; nitrate of silver, 10 grains to 
the ounce of water: and creolin, pure or diluted. 

If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change 
the remedies every few days. 

If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and 
glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of 
camphor may do best. 

When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment 
made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 part- of cosmoline or vaseline is 
all that is needed. 

If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which 
projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut oil' with a 
sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, 
after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar 
caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. 

The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must 
he determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is sup- 
purating freely it will he necessary to renew the dressing every 
twenty-four or forty-eight hour-: if the discharge is small in quan- 
tity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for 
several days: in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed the better, 
in so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore com- 
mences to -kin over, the edges should be lightly touched with Lunar 
caustic at each dressing. The patient may now he given a little 
exercise daily: but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is 
entirely healed. 



QUITTOR. 385 

TENDINOUS QUITTOR. 

This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only 
affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves, also, the ten- 
dons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the 
bones of the foot as well. 

Fortunately this form of quittor is less common than the preced- 
ing; yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at any 
time during its course become complicated by the death of some part 
of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coro- 
nary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of 
the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into 
one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient's life or 
maim him for all time. 

Causes. — Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influ- 
ences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not 
infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I 
have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am satisfied that young 
animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, 
and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery. 

Symp+^ms. — When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the 
tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in 
the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack 
primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a 
well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than in- 
juries this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no 
more in trotting than in walking; but later on, generally during the 
next forty-eight hours, the lameness increases to such an extent that 
the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made 
during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness; 
it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the 
seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as 
the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor vdll be found forming on the heel 
or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is 
extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms 
increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing 
quick; the temperature elevated three or four degrees; the appetite 
is gone; thirst increased, and the lameness so great that the foot is 
carried in the air if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the 
disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side, 
with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat, 
and every respiration is accompanied by a moan. The leg soon swells 
to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or 
hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days 
elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing 
H. Doc 71)5, r.9-2 25 



386 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the sup- 
purative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily 
collect ing in a mass. 

Recently I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this 
disease, where the animal had died on the fourth day after being 
found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense; 
yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shed- 
ding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of 
the leg to the knee. The sloughing of the hoof took place two or 
three hours before death, and was accompanied with but little suppu- 
ration and no hemorrhage. The skin from the knee to the foot was 
thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter 
three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All 
had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate 
the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was 
distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the 
flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The 
soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by col- 
lections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive laminae. The 
coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicu- 
lar, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had 
become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between 
the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely 
separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral carti- 
lage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon 
near its point of attachment on the coffinbone. Several small collec- 
tions of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary 
region; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments; in the sheath of 
the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in 
front, and in the coffin joint. 

But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated 
as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and after a 
few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any dis- 
charge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, 
from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the 
coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody 
matter. In other cases the suppurative process is hugely confined to 
the sensitive laminae and plantar cushion, when the suffering is 
intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof 
from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss 
of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in- 
the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in 
the hollow of the heel: if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the 
flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint: although 
in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the 



QUITTOR. 387 

tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing 
of the deeper parts follows. 

Treatment. — The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed 
toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to 
prevent suppuration ; and if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold 
irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to 
be resorted to. Later on, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, 
the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the 
swelling. Whenever openings appear from which pus escapes, they 
should be carefully probed; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead 
down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process 
of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a 
more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once ; for instance, 
if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of 
the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble. 
Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated 
by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates 
in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints, 
and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made 
with a small syringe, repeated two or three times a day. As soon as 
the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity, 
stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. Where 
the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong 
solution of carbolic acid — 1 to 4 — should be used at first. Or strong 
solutions of tincture of iodine, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, 
bichloride of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic ; after 
which the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor 
are to be used. In those cases where the fistulous tracts refuse to 
heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution 
of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water; or, better 
still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot. 

But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of 
the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. Where 
the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imper- 
fect, hoof may be secured by carefully protecting the exposed tissues 
with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep slough- 
ing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immov- 
able ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place, 
it may be removed by an operation ; but if much of the bone is affected, 
or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious proc- 
ess, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This 
operation is advisable only where the animal is valuable for breeding 
purposes. In all other cases where there is no hope for recovery the 
patient's suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor 
much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle 



388 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous 
tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and 
unnecessary tissue, the parts should he fired with the hot iron, or, in 
its absence, repeated blistering with the biniodide of mercury oint- 
ment may largely accomplish the same result. 

Sri'.IIOK.NY QUITTOB. 

This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen 
in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind 
feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the 
outside quarter, the hand in front, or the heel, where it is of but little 
consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the 
coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppura- 
tion, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive Laminae. 

Causes. — Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and 
calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. 
Still cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just 
as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that 
subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes. 

Symptoms. — At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the 
patient often refuses to use the affected loot. Swelling of the coronet 
close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the 
wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot 
and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the 
most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof sepa- 
rates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the 
heel. From this opening, wherever it may be. a thin, watery, 
offensive discharge escapes, often dark in color, at times mixed with 
blood, and always containing a considerable percentage of pus. 

Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of 
the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon 
the part of the suppurative process to spread downward: the pus 
gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive Laminae until the sole 
is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined. 

As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the 
case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally 
avoided; but if the case is neglected, and. occasionally, even in spite 
of the best of treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, 
the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved. 

In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when 
the slough conies away, and rapid recovery is made. If. however, 
after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound 
continues to discharge a thin unhealthy matter, the probabilities are 
that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of 
the foot. In Zundel's opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a 



QUITTOE. 389 

pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course 
of development. 

Treatment. — Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the pres- 
ence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with 
a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and 
poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough 
has come away and the discharge is diminished, when dressings 
•recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used 
until recovery is completed. In cases where the discharge comes 
from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary 
band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues 
beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy 
parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the dis- 
eased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better 
application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objec- 
tion to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early 
returned to work. 

When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone 
the sole must be pared through, and if caries of the bone is present 
the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound 
is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichloride of 
mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly 
applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so 
great that the dressings need to be changed every twenty-four hours; 
but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from 
one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe 
should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made 
perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band. 

Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as 
directed under those headings. 

CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOR. 

This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of 
the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a 
sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore 
or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it 
attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally 
the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in 
many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a 
thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved and much 
surgical skill. 

Causes. — Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks, 
burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture, 
bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of carti- 
laginous quittor. Besides being a sequel to the other forms of quittor. 



390 DISEASES OF THE HORSK. 

it sometimes develops as a complicatioD in suppurative corn, canker, 
grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used 
for heavy draft, and (hose with flat feet and low heels, are more 
liable to the disease than others, for the simple reason that they art- 
more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease 
by increasing liability to injury. 

Symptom*. — When the disease commences as a primary inflamma- 
tion of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swell- 
ing on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this 
lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is dis- 
eased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest 
the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lame- 
ness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no 
faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the 
cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much 
greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more 
likely to become affected. 

Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous 
openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings 
are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated 
above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows 
these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to 
one point — the gangrenous cartilage. "When cartilaginous quittor 
happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured 
wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of 
injury on the sole. 

The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and 
contains enough pus to give it a pale yellow color; it is offensive to 
the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage 
which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small 
greenish colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some 
of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is followed by the 
gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess, 
which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof, 
over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough 
and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than 
the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the 
disease has upon the coronary band. 

Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lat- 
eral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar 
cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone. 

Tniitmciit. — Before recovery can take place all of the dead cartilage 
must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without 
assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery, 
and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and sim- 



THRUSH. 391 

plest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong 
caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its 
discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favor- 
able cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in 
from two to three weeks. While the saturated solution of sulphate 
of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichloride of mercury to 100 
parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as 
favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic 
soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodine, etc. But 
no matter which one of these remedies may be selected, it must be used 
at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the vari- 
ous openings with enough force to drive it to the bottom of the 
wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum, 
held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not 
always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on 
the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage ; the 
coronary band and laminae should not be injured in the operation. 

If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become 
healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week 
the fistulous tracts are closing up, and the injections are made with 
much difficulty. 

If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after 
this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be 
concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage 
must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation 
can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be 
described in this connection. 

THRUSH. 

Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy mat- 
ter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable 
to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than 
in any other breed — a fact due to the conditions of servitude and not 
to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the 
disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in 
cities and towns. 

Causes. — The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition 
of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to 
contract the disease in the hind feet when the cause is due to filth, while 
the gelding and stallion are more likely to develop it in the fore feet. 
Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as 
may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause 
is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly 
soaked in the bath tub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy 
streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, 
excite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted heels, 



392 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a 
constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals 
which otherwise present a perfect frog. 

Symptoms. — At first there is simply an increased moisture in the 
cleft of the frog, accompanied l>y an offensive smell. After a time a 
considerable discharge takes place — thin, watery, and highly offen 
sive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly 
destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the 
patient lame and the foot feverish — cases in which the whole frog is 
involved in the diseased process. 

Treatment. — Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal 
of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. 
As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared 
away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to 
which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of pow- 
dered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog 
and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with 
dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. 
If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily: 
otherwise it may be left on two or three days. Where a constitu- 
tional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc.. 
a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated 
daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems 
too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often folloved by 
good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be 
protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a 
sequel to other diseases, a permanent cure may not be possible. 

CANKER. 

Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable 
parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but. by setting up a 
chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a 
healthy horn by which the injury might be repaired. Heavy cart 
horses are more often affected than those of any other class. 

Causes. — The essential element in the production of canker is the 
parasite: consequently the disease may be called contagious. But. as 
in all other diseases due to specific causes, the seeds of the disorder 
must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced. 
It may be -aid. then, that the conditions which favor the preparation 
of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply 
predisposing causes. 

The condition most favorable to the development of ("anker is 
dampness — in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and 
growth of the parasite: for the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, 
dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. 
Filthy stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes 



CANKER. 393 

of canker; but it is very doubtful if these conditions can do more than 
favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. 

All injuries to the feet may, by exposing the soft tissues, render the 
animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irrita- 
tion and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to 
induce the disease. 

For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments — 
thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with 
white feet and legs — are especially liable to canker. 

Symptoms. — Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may 
attack two, three, or all of the feet at once ; or,- as is more commonly 
seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been 
successively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has 
exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to 
heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, 
thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and de- 
stroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is 
diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered 
at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn, 
which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid 
secretion by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to 
the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses com- 
posed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense 
of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury, 
the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the 
liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting 
away of the horn of the frog and sole. 

In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but 
later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on 
rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destined 
the lameness is severe. 

Treatment. — Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues 
to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production 
of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the 
parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted. 
In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of strip- 
ping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot 
iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. 

I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely 
and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less 
painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the 
patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after 
all success depends more on the persistent application of simple 
remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any 
particular drug. 



394 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice 
containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the 

charcoal or a tablespoon ful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves 
to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of 
horn are to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only 
healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn 
arc to he pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap 
their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on 
the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, 
plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the 
many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be 
necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all 
ma} r be tried. 

The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, 
gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid : sulphates of iron, copper, 
and zinc; chloride of zinc, bichloride of mercury, calomel, caustic 
soda, nitrate of silver, chloride of lime ; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric 
acids. 

In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour 
or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron, made by adding 2 ounces 
of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot 
is removed it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made 
of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine S parts, to which is slowly 
added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and 
cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad 
of oakum, sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure, is placed 
over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to 
slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or 
folded gunny sack, and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The 
dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day, at first. 
When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which arc 
now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a lent of 
oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders may prove of most 
advantage, such as calomel, sulphates of iron, copper, etc. The sul- 
phates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered 
animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten 
of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over, the dress- 
ings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to 
prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in 
condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses, 
twice a day. and a liberal diet of grain allowed. 

CORNS. 

A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the 
soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured 
and a small amount of blood escapes, which, by permeating the horn 



corns. 395 

in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury 
is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character, and 
the soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns 
always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside 
wall of the hoof. In many cases the lamina? of the bar, of the wall, 
or of both are involved at the same time. 

Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized — the dry, the moist, 
and the suppurative — a division based solely on the character of the 
conditions which follow the primary injury. 

The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for 
two reasons: First, because they support a greater part of the body; 
secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first 
placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion 
than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the 
ground. 

Causes. — It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that 
even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to 
the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds 
of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets 
seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. 

Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be 
named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the 
bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these 
parts are subject; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elas- 
ticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the 
heel, and render lacerations more easy ; long feet, which by removing 
the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary 
moisture, which, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and 
diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; and weak feet, or 
those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency 
to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet 
with low heels are always accompanied by a flat sole whose posterior 
wings either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence 
are easily bruised ; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad 
and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the dis- 
placement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the 
soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn. 

It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predis- 
posing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most 
serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be 
found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain 
the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely 
paring away the sole; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog, 
which is nature's main support to the branches of the sole and the 
heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive 



396 DISEASES OF THE BOBSE. 

downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the 
same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the 
foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must he added 
the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted 
to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, extending it too far 
back on the heels, high ealks. thin heels which permit the shoe to 
spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light 
for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him. are all to 
he avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set as to press upon tin 1 sole 
or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until 
the heels rest upon the sole and bars become a direct cause of corns. 
Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stone-, 
hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe. 
Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard 
roads, predispose to this disease of the feet. 

Symptoms. — Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lame- 
ness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but 
a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by 
no means unusual to see old horses having chronic corns apparently so 
accustomed to the slight pain which they sutler as not to limp at all; 
but these animals are generally very restless; they paw their bedding 
behind them at night, and often refuse to lie down for any lengthened 
rest The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be 
characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity: but 
the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same 
in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight, 
and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the content- of the hoof 
is removed from the heeds. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides 
or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured 
ti-siies are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases, 
the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender 
to pressure. In dry corn, and in most chronic cases, all evidences <>t 
local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient 
goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the 
seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed, and lowers 
the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum. 

If a corn is suspected the foot should be examined for increased 
sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heed of the shoe with a 
hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers, 
with moderate pressure, will cause more or less flinching, if the dis- 
ease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the 
heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not 
only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances 
the insensible laminae of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained 



cokns. 397 

with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discolor- 
ation is less marked than in dry corn and may be entirely wanting. 
In these' cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as 
seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thick- 
ness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle, it is gen- 
erally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause 
lias existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry corn 
in that the injury is more severe; the parts affected are more or less 
inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a 
citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and 
laminae, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy. 

A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation 
ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and 
finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensi^ 
ble laminae to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between 
the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most 
serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of 
the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone. 

Treatment. — Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures 
must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise 
the use of those which have proven most efficient in his hands. 

As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible, 
and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing will be at 
fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advis- 
able, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the 
foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very 
properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make 
it imperative that shoes shall be worn which are not free from objec- 
tions; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it 
is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are 
less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. 

For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick 
than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. 
In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possi- 
ble on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. 
If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. 
If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar 
shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon 
the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A 
piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to 
destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some ani- 
mals to enable them to work. 

Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which 
serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon 



398 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but 
protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation; for 
this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the 
feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substance-, or damp 
diit floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., 
are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too 
dry and hard. 

As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will 
depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic 
dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a 
day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to 
injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered 
until all pressure is removed and, if the patient's labor is required, 
the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having still' heel-. 
("are must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too 
long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole 
and bar. 

I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation 
present, cold baths and poultices should be used ; when the horn is well 
softened and the fever allayed, pare out all of the diseased horn, 
lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath and poultice the foot for two 
or three days. "When the granulations look red, dress the wound with 
oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits 
of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every 
two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the 
wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient 
returned to work. 

In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that 
the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the 
coronary band and escapes from an opening between the hand and 
hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made 
astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a 
day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts 
may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichloride of mercury. 
nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist 
corns. When complications arise, the treatment must he varied to 
meet the indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place 
it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor; 
if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must he cut away; if the coffin 
hone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated 
on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have 
been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is 
best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe 
when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the 
complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of 



BRUISE OF THE FROG. 399 

the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall 
which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete 
cure. 

BRUISE OF THE FROG. 

When the frog is severely bruised, the injury is followed by suppu- 
ration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the 
plantar cushion. 

Causes. — A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on 
a rough stone or other hard object. It is more apt to take place when 
trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone 
Wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of 
the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same- 
results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument 
or a punctured wound by a blunt pointed instrument may also cause 
suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet 
with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries. 

Symptoms. — Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the 
bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. 
When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the 
foot is carried in the air and the patient hobbles along on three legs. 
When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground 
and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its 
way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined 
early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening 
exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels. 
The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through, 
a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a 
ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead, 
sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the 
plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be in- 
volved in the injury and a small portion of it become carious. 

Treatment. — If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed 
in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has 
already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of 
the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure 
may be removed, and the foot poulticed. When the pus has loosened 
the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is 
discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one- 
half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion, 
and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangre- 
nous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the 
poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be 
removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached, 
the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dress- 



400 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and band- 
ages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness lias sub- 
sided, and a thin layer of new horn has covered the exposed part.-, tin- 
foot may he shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held 
in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to 
slow work. Where caries of the coffin bone, etc., follow the injury, 
the treatment recommended for these complications in punctured 
wounds of the foot must be resorted to. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE TOOT. 

Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are 
more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than 
these may be when involving the more important organs contained 
within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the 
injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from sharp pieces of rock, 
glass, wire, knives, etc. 

A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed 
instrument than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is 
to the center of the foot the more likely are disastrous results to fol- 
low. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are 
attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure 
the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds 
of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason 
that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even where 
t he wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense 
suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those 
which happen to the center of the foot, and which involve, in pro- 
portion to their depth, tin 1 plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis, 
the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint. 

Punctured wounds are more likely to be deep in flat or convex feet 
than in well-made feet. and. as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor 
so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy 
draft than in those required to do faster work: for the former may be 
useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured 
wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the 
reason that in the former the instrument is apt to enter the foot in a 
nearly perpendicular line. and. consequently, is more likely to injure 
the deeper structures of the foot: in the hind foot, the injury is 
generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep. 

Si/m />tomx.- -\ nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the 
frog and remain for several days without causing lameness: in fact, 
in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of 
the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening 
where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes. 
Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no 



PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF FOOT. 401 

lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of 
foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be 
examined for evidence of injury. 

The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied by suppura- 
tion, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected 
member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands 
with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth. 
In other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet 
outstretched ; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature 
elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat. 

When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with diffi- 
culty and the wound shows no signs of healing; the whole foot is hot 
and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the 
synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but 
later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its 
clear amber color. Suppuration generally extends up the course of 
the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and 
finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet 
is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with 
blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the 
abscess opens. 

If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense 
from the beginning; but the only certain way to determine the exist- 
ence of this complication is by the use of the probe, and unless there 
is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care, 
else the coffin joint may be opened. 

If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending in- 
strument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the 
joint follows, accompanied by high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The 
ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to 
the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process 
of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on dif- 
ferent parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may 
die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the 
suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint 
becoming stiff (anchylosis). 

When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure 
the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces 
of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels 
rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part 
of the wound to heal. 

Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as seri- 
ous may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof 
may slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and ringbones grow. 

H. Doc 795, 59-2 20 



402 DISEASES OF THE EOBSE. 

Finally, Laminitis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient per- 
sists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death. 

Treatment. — In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should 
he thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products 
nf suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury i.-> 
inn serious, recovery takes place in a few days' time. Where the 
wound is deeper, it is better to put the foot in a cold bath or under a 
stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor. 

If the hone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each 
of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron, may be used until the 
dead bone i^ well softened, when it should be removed by an opera- 
tion. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared 
away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles 
are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with 
creolin or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, oakum balls, and a 
roller bandage. 

Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument, 
like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface i^ 
driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and 
should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable. 
Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied by caries, may be 
operated on and the life of the patient saved; but the most skillful 
surgery is required ami only the experienced operator should under- 
take their treatment. 

If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the 
sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate 
should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed 
as directed above. 

The other complications are to be treated as directed under their 
proper headings. 

After healing of the wounds has been effected, Lameness, with more 
or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases 
the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery, 
and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and 
is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to; in many cases 
witli very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can 
relieve it. and the patient must either be put to very slow work or 
kept for breeding purposes only. 

"Prick in shoeing" is an injury which should be considered under 
the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the 
shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by 
inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft 
tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the 
horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force 
as to crush them. In either case the animal generally goes lame soon 



CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. 403 

after shoeing unless the injury is at the toe, when the first evidence of 
the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. When lameness 
follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable 
cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the 
one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal. 

Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have 
been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be 
pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to 
be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration 
have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evi- 
dence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed, 
the horn pared out, and creolin or a weak solution of carbolic acid 
injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed. 

CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOF-BOUND. 

Contracted heels, or hoof-bound, is a common disease among horses 
kept on hard floors in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much 
saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of 
the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It 
affects the fore feet principally; but it is seen occasionally in the hind 
feet, where it is of less importance for the reason that the hind foot 
first strikes the ground with the toe, and, consequently, less expan- 
sion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight 
is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility 
of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately 
gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time ; but 
when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other. 
Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in 
these cases there is less likely to be lameness and permanent impair- 
ment of the animal's usefulness. According to the opinion of some 
of the French veterinarians, hoof-bound should be divided into two 
classes — total contraction, where the whole foot is shrunken in size ; 
and contract/on of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the 
quarters backward. (Plate XXXIV, figs. 4 and 7.) 

Causes. — Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to 
towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not 
alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and 
wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another 
common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, 
such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars ; high 
calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may 
happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot ; for instance, 
it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular 
disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and sus- 
pensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joints. 



404 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Symptoms. — In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular 
shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a 
straight line. The ground surface of the fool is now smaller than the 
coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing 
heels, is much shrunken; and at times is affected with thrush. The 
sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars 
are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry. and so 
hard that it can scarcely be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly 
and often ridged like the horns of a ram. while fissures, more or less 
deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction 
of the horn fibers. (Plate XXXIII, fig. 10.) When the disease is 
well advanced, lameness is present, while in the earlier stages there is 
only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot. 
Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. Tn most 
cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on 
the toe. but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes 
oil' al the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains 
in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases, 
a dry. mealy horn will lie found where the sole and wall unite, ex- 
tending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters. 

Treatment. — First of all. the preventive measures must be consid- 
ered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by 
the use of damp sawdust or other bedding: by occasional poultices of 
boiled turnips, linseed meal. etc.. and greasy hoof ointments to the 
sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared 
from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be 
mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be used on the shoe except 
when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once 
a month, to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exer- 
cise must be insisted on. 

As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number 
of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the 
spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used. 
would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection 
to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to 
make and apply. The method of treatment which T have adopted is 
not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of 
(he patient's services for a time is not considered a part of the ques- 
tion. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water 
until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for 
the shoe in the usual way. except that the heels are lowered a little, 
and tic frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a "tip," is made by 
cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the 
ends down to ;m in\<j;r. The tapering of the branches should begin at 
the toe. and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper 



SAND-CRACKS. 405 

and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight 
small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a com- 
mon foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away 
the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues 
beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 2^ or 3 
inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in 
cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the 
wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all 
around the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment ; when this is well set, 
the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The 
blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the 
patient can be returned to work in two or three months' time. 

The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, 
which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides 
of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being 
relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the 
disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any 
inflammation which may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of 
healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and nor- 
mal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased 
concavity of the sole, accompanied by excessive wasting of all the 
internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected 
and are rarely secured. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may 
be effected by these measures. 

When thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought 
by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbone*, 
navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the 
cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is 
removed. 

SAND-CRACKS. 

A sand-crack is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These 
fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direc- 
tion of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part of the wall, but 
ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe- 
cracks,' or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known as 
quarter-cracks. (Plate XXXIII.) 

Toe-cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter-cracks 
nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable 
to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not 
only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the 
weight of the body. A sand-crack may be superficial, involving only 
the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving (he whole 
thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath. 

The toe-crack is most likely to be complete — that is, extending from 



406 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the coronary band to the sole — while the quarter-crack is marly 
always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recenl origin. 
Sand-cracks are mosl serious when they involve the coronary band in 

the injury. They may he complicated at any ti by hemorrhage, 

inflammation of the laminae, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral 
cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin hone, or the 
growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. 

Cause*. — Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing 
cause of sand-cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more pro- 
lific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to 
dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in ani- 
mals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are 
rough and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous 
countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to 
stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter-cracks than 
those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and 
feel which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand-cracks 
than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter-cracks 
exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the 
inside quarter turns under. 

Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the 
heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease and sup- 
purative corns, must lie included as occasional predisposing causes of 
sand-cracks. 

Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, 
together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quar- 
ter-cracks in particular. Toe-cracks are more likely to be caused by 
heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. 

Symptoms. — The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence 
of the disease; and even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden 
from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, 
or by the long hairs of the coronet. 

Sand-cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, 
involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer 
surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected 
from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and 
follows the direction of the horny fibers; but the trouble can only be 
positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until 
the fissure is exposed. In toe-cracks the walls of the fissure are in 
close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but 
when the foot i> raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quar- 
ter-crack the opposite is true; the fissure closes when the weight is 
removed from the foot. As a rule, sand-cracks begin at the coronary 
band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but 
they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe-crack, the 



SAND-CRACKS. 407 

horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off, 
sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind 
a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end 
of the toe. 

In many cases of quarter-crack, and in some cases of toe-crack as 
well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the 
fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues 
from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth 
protrudes from the narrow opening. 

When the cracks are deep, and the motion of their edges consider- 
able, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every move- 
ment, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the 
lameness is severe. 

Ordinarily the lameness of sand-crack is slight when the patient 
walks ; but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the 
harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is 
greater going down hill than up, for the reason that these conditions 
are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. 
Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand- 
crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent 
hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a 
misstep. 

Treatment. — In so far as preventive measures are concerned, but 
little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by 
the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be pro- 
portioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding 
it in place are to be of proper size, and not driven too near the heels ; 
sufficient calks and toe-pieces must be added to the shoes of horses 
working on slippery roads; and the evils of jumping, fast driving, 
etc., are to be avoided. 

When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted 
which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; and this can 
only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and 
simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe-crack 
together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments 
necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of 
veterinary instruments. (Plate XXXIII.) These instruments com- 
prise a cautery iron with which two notches are burned in the wall, 
one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are 
closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the 
fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel 
wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the 
crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly 
cleansed and dried, and, if the injury is of recent origin, the crack 
may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part 



408 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be deter- 
mined by the Length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested, 
etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an 
inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter-crack if the 
wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the 
strain. 

In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled 
through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin 
nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of 
steel or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with 
short screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the 
fissure, it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges, for the simple 
reason that the plate and screw can not be rendered immobile. 

If, for any reason, the above measures fail or can not be used. 
recourse must be had to an operation. The horn is softened by the 
use of warm baths and poultices, the patient cast, and the walls of the 
fissure entirely removed with the knife. The horn removed is in the 
shape of the letter Y with the base at the coronet. Care must be taken 
not to injure the coronary band and the lamina 1 . The wound is to be 
treated with mild stimulant dressings, such as creolin, a weak solu- 
tion of carbolic acid, tincture of aloes, etc., oakum balls, and a roller 
bandage. After a few days the wound will be covered with a new. 
white horn, and the oakum and bandages only will be needed. As the 
new quarter grows out the lameness disappears, and the patient may 
be shod with a liar shoe and returned to work. 

In all cases of sand-crack tin' growth of horn should be stimulated 
by cauterizing the coronary band or by the use of blisters. In simple 
quarter-crack recovery will often take place if the coronet is blistered, 
the foot shod with a k " tip." and the patient turned to pasture. 

The shoe in toe-crack should have a clip on each side of the fissure 
and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be 
lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly 
under the fissure, where it is to be pared away until it sets free from 
the shoe. 

A\'licii any of the complications referred to above arise, special 
measures must be resorted to. For the proper treatment of gangrene 
of the Lateral cartilage and extensor tendon and caries of the coffin 
bone reference may be had to the articles on quittors. II' the horny 
tumor, known as keraphyllocele, should develop, it is to be removed 
by the use of the knife. Since this tumor develops on the inside of 
the horny box ami may involve other important organs of the foot in 
disease, its removal should only be undertaken by a skillful surgeon. 



INFLAMMATION OF NAVICULAR BONE. 409 

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 

Navicular disease is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, in- 
duced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many 
cases by inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some 
instances the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the ses- 
amoid sheath becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the 
inflammatory process. (Plate XXXII, fig. 5.) 

The thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected than any other, 
yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The mule, how- 
ever, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For reasons which will 
appear when considering the causes of the disease, the hind feet are 
not liable to be affected. Usually but one fore foot suffers from the 
disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has become chronic 
in the first before the second shows signs of the disease. 

Causes. — To comprehend fully how navicular disease may be caused 
by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is neces- 
sary to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process 
and the functions which they perform in locomotion. 

It must be remembered that the fore legs largely support the weight 
of the body when the animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves 
the greater is the shock which the fore feet must receive as the body 
is thrown forward by the propelling force of the hind legs. This 
shock could not be withstood by the tissues of the fore feet and legs 
were it not that it is largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which 
bind the shoulder to the body, the ease with which the arm closes on 
the shoulder blade, and the spring of the fetlock joint. But even these 
means are not sufficient within themselves to protect the foot from 
injury ; so nature has further supplemented them by placing the coffin 
joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of directly on top of 
it, whereby a large part of the shock of locomotion is dispersed before 
it can reach the vertical column represented by the cannon, knee, and 
arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing a soft, 
elastic pad — the frog and plantar cushion — at the heels to receive the 
sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward by 
the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordinary 
as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample as 
they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or 
load, they fail to relieve completely the parts from concussion and ex- 
cessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present. The 
result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against 
the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the navicular 
as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It 
is self-evident, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the 
load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the 



410 DISEASKS OF THE BOBSE. 

liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee 
action are more likely to suffer from thi> disease than others, concus- 
sion of the Coot and intense pressure on the tendon being common 
among such horses. 

Besides the above exciting causes must be considered those which 
predispose to the disease. Mo-t prominent among these is heredity. 
It may he claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navic- 
u la t- disease consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the 
tissues which are involved in the process as in a vice of conformation 
which, as is well known, is likely to be transmitted from parent to off- 
spring. The faults of conformation most likely to be followed by the 
development of navicular disease are an insufficient planter cushion, 
a small frog, high heels, excessive knee action, and contracted heels. 
Finally, the environments of domestication and use, such as dry 
stables, heavy pulling, had shoeing, punctured wounds, etc.. all have 
their influence in developing this disease. 

Symptoms. — In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms 
are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation 
of the navicular bone, the animal while at rest points the affected foot 
a time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently 
travels a- well a- ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set 
out in front of the other, resting on the toe. with fetlock and knee 
flexed. After a time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes 
a few lame steps while at work, but the lameness disappears as sud- 
denly as it came, and the driver doubts if the animal was really lame 
at all. Later on the patient has a lame spell which may last during a 
greater part of the day. but the next morning it is gone: he leaves the 
stable all right, but goes lame again during the day. In time he has 
a severe attack of lameness, which may last for a week or more, when 
a remission takes place and it may be weeks or months before another 
attack supervene-. Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the 
more he is used the greater the lameness. 

In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes 
a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground; so the 
shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move back- 
ward, the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the weight 
rests upon the a fleeted leg but a moment. When exercised he often 
stumble-, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If he is 
lame in both feet the gait is stilty. the shoulders seem stiff, and, if 
made to work, sweats profusely from intense pain. Early in the 
development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some 
increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work: as the 
disease progresses this become-, more marked, until the whole foot is 
hot to the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility 
of the foot, for the patient flinches from the percussion of a hammer 



SIDEBONES. 411 

lightly applied to the frog and heels or from the pressure of the 
smith's pincers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale-red 
color, and at times is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared 
away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the same, re- 
sult is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excess- 
ively lame. The muscles of the leg and shoulder shrink away, and 
often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness 
the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently 
lengthened ; the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss, 
while circular ridges, developed most toward the heels, cover the 
upper part of the hoof. When both feet are affected, the animal 
points first one foot, then the other, and stands with the hind feet well 
forward beneath the body, so as to relieve the fore feet as much as 
possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles 
and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the leg can not 
be straightened; and locomotion can scarcely be performed. The 
disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to recov- 
ery — the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be 
interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. The compli- 
cations usually seen are ringbones, sidebones, thrush, contracted heels, 
quarter-cracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern 
bones. 

Treatment. — But few cases of navicular disease recover. In the 
early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away, as directed 
in the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin ; the 
coronet should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the 
patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or 
four weeks the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be 
continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on 
when the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal 
should be put to slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy 
may l>e performed — an operation in which the sense of feeling is 
destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. 
This operation in nowise cures the disease, and, since it may be at- 
tended with serious results, can only be advised in certain favorable 
cases, to be determined by the veterinarian. 

SIDEBONES. 

A sidebone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages 
found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the depo- 
sition of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in 
heavy horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow ponies, and other 
saddle horses, and in runners and trotters. 

Sidebones are peculiar to the fore feet, yet they occasionally de- 
velop in the hind feet, where they are of little importance since they 



412 DISEASES OF THE BOBSE. 

cause do Lameness. In many instance- sidebones arc of slow growth 
and, being unaccompanied by acute inflammation, they cause no 
lameness until such time as. by reason of their size, they interfere 
with the action of the joint. (Plate XXXII. fig. 4.) 

( 'mists. — Sidebones often grow in heavy horse- without any appar- 
ent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over- 
expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal. 
Blows and other injuries to the cartilages may set up an inflammatory 
process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High- 
heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the 
conditions which may excite the growth of sidebones. They are often 
seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular dis- 
ease, punctured wounds of the foot, quarter-cracks, and occasionally 
as a sequel to founder. 

Symptoms. — In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is 
present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever 
over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the 
lameness of sidebones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and 
the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable- 
stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise. 

Since the deposit of bony matter often begins in that pari of the 
cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process 
may exist for some time before the bony growth can l>e seen or felt. 
Later on, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its elastic 
character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the 
coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these 
bones become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing 
on the joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal become- 
entirely useless. 

Treatment. — So soon as the disease can be diagnosed active treat- 
ment should be adopted. Cold-water bandage- are to be \\<vA for a 
few day- to relieve the fever and soreness. 

The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures 
often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered: but with a 
return to work- the Lameness, fever, etc.. reappears. For this reason 
the use of blisteFS, or. better -till, the firing iron, should follow on the 
discontinuance of the cold bandage . 

But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these 
bony tumors, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted 
to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion 
that the patient may be u-ed for slow work; but in animals \\<0(\ for 
fast driving or f"r -addle purposes, the operation is practically use- 
less. Some years ago I unnerved a number of cavalry horses at Fort 
Leavenworth that were suffering from sidebones. and the records 
show that in less than seven months all were more lame than ever. 



RINGBONE. 413 

Since a predisposition to develop sidebones may be inherited, ani- 
mals suffering from this disease should not be used for breeding- 
purposes unless the trouble is known to have originated from an 
accident. 

RINGBONE. 

A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumor on the ankle. This 
tumor is, in fact, not the disease, but simply the result of an 
inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper 
of the pastern bones. (Plate XXXII, fig. 1.) (See also page 289.) 

Causes. — Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young, unde- 
veloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among 
the principal exciting causes of ringbone. Horses most disposed to 
this disease are those with short, upright pasterns, for the reason that 
the shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore legs 
of these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks, 
a tpo great shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels, 
predispose to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone 
is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony 
tumor forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern, its 
growth is generally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and 
consequently produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called 
'• false " ringbones. But when the tumors form on the whole circum- 
ference of the ankle, or simply in front under the extensor tendon, or 
behind under the flexor tendons, or if they involve the joints between 
the two pastern bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin 
bone, the lameness is always severe. These constitute the true ring- 
bone. Besides lameness, the ankle of the affected limb presents more 
or less heat, and in many instances a rather firm, though limited, 
swelling of the deeper tissues over the seat of the inflammatory proc- 
ess. The lameness of ringbone is characteristic in that the heel is 
first placed on the ground when the disease is in a fore leg, and the 
ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind leg, however, the toe 
strikes the ground first, when the ringbone is high on the ankle, just 
as in health, but the ankle is maintained in a rigid position. If the 
bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind leg, or if it 
involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In 
the early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ring- 
bone, but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt 
and seen as well. 

The importance of a ringbone depends on its seat and often on its 
size. If it interferes with the joints or with the tendons it may cause 
an incurable lameness, even though small. If it is on the sides of the 
large pastern, the lameness generally disappears as soon as the tumor 
has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even where 



414 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

the pastern joinl is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the 

patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect 
action <>!' the l'<><>t remaining, due to the stiff joint. 

Treatment. — Before the bony growth has commenced the inflam- 
matory process may l>e cut short by the use of cold baths and wet 
bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits 
have begun the firing iron should always be used. Even where the 
tumors are large and the pastern joint involved firing often hastens 
the process of anchylosis and should always be trie. I. 

Where the lower joint is involved or where the tumor interfere-; 
with the action of the tendons recovery is not to he expected. In 
many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made service- 
able by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the 
ground the foot should he shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short 
toe. On the other hand, if he walks on the heel, a thick-toed and 
thin-heeled shoe must be worn. 

Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases, 
no animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breed- 
ing purposes. 

LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 

Laminitis is a simple inflammation of the sensitive lamina? of the 
feet, characterized by the general phenomena attending inflamma- 
tion of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitutional 
disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease, and hav- 
ing a strong tendency, in severe cases, to destructive disorganization 
of the tissues affected. 

< 'mixes. — The causes of laminitis are as wide and variable as in any 
of the local inflammations, and may he divided into two classes — the 
predisposing and the exciting. 

Predisposing causes. — From personal observation I do not know 
that any particular construction of foot or any special breed of horses 
is predisposed to this disease, neither can I find anything to warrant 
the assumption that it is in any way hereditary: so that while we 
may easily cultivate a predisposition to the disease, it does not origi- 
nate without an exciting cause. Like most other tissues, a predisposi- 
tion to inflammation may be induced in the sensitive laminae by any 
cause which lessens their power of withstanding the work imposed on 
them. It exists to an extent in those animals unaccustomed to work, 
particularly if they are plethoric, and in all those that have been pre- 
vious subjects of the disease: for the same rule holds good here that 
we find in so many diseases — i. <■., that one attack impairs the func- 
tional activity of the affected tissues and renders them more easy of a 
subsequent inflammation. Unusual excitement by determining an 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 415 

excessive blood supply, bad shoeing, careless paring of the feet by 
removing the sole support, and high calkings without corresponding 
toe pieces must be included under this head. 

Exciting causes. — The exciting causes of laminitis are man;y and 
varied. The most common are concussion, overexertion, exhaustion, 
rapid changes of temperature, ingestion of certain foods, purgatives, 
and the oft-mentioned metastasis. 

( 1 ) Concussion produces this disease by local overstimulation. The 
excessive excitement is followed by an almost complete exhaustion of 
the functional activity of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by 
congestion, and eventually by inflammation. But congestion here, as 
in all other tissues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation , for, 
although the principal symptoms belonging to true laminitis are 
present, the congestion may be relieved before the processes of inflam- 
mation are fully established. This is the condition in the many so- 
called cases of laminitis which recover in from twenty-four to forty- 
eight hours. They should be called congestion of the lamina?. 

Laminitis from concussion is common in trotting horses that are 
raced when not in condition, ecpecially if they carry the obnoxious toe 
weights, and in green horses put to work on city pavements to which 
they are unaccustomed. Concussion from long drives on dirt roads is 
at times productive of the same results, notably when the weather is 
extremely warm, or at least when the relative change of temperature 
is great. But the exhaustion of these circumstances must prove an 
exciting cause as well as the long-continued concussion. This combi- 
nation of causes must also determine the disease at times in hunters, 
for the weight of the rider increases the demands made upon the 
function of these tissues, and their powers are the sooner exhausted. 

(2) Overexertion, as heavy pulling or rapid work, even where there 
is no immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease; but 
here also exhaustion is a conjunctive cause, for overexertion can not 
be long continued without exhaustion. 

(3) Exhaustion is nearly as prolific a source of laminitis as is con- 
cussion ; for when the physical strength is impaired, even though tem- 
porarily, some part of the economy is rendered more vulnerable to 
disease than others. To this cause we must ascribe those cases which 
follow a hard day's work, where at no time has there been overexer- 
tion or immoderate concussion. 

The tendency to laminitis in horses on sea voyages results from the 
continual constrained position the animal maintains on account of the 
rocking motion of the vessel. 

Where one foot has been blistered, or where one limb is incapaci- 
tated from any cause, the opposite member, doing double duty, soon 
becomes exhausted, and congestion, followed by inflammation, results. 
Where one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the cor- 



416 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

responding member participating at a later date: not always because 
of sympathy, bul because one foot had to do the work of two. 

t I ) Rapid changes of temperature act a:- an exciting cause of lami- 
nitis by impairing the normal blood supply. 

This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large 
quantities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the 
internal heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood 
vessels constrained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly 
diminished, while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly 
increased. True, in many cases there has not been sufficient labor per- 
formed to impair the powers of the lamina', and laminitis is more 
readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other 
surface organs, because the laminae can not relieve themselves of 
threatened congestion by the general safety valve of perspiration. 
A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the body 
when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for it 
arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby 
determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are pro- 
tected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to 
be some of the internal organ-, as the lungs, if the previous work has 
been rapid and their functional activity impaired; but in numerous 
other instances the determination is toward the feet, and that it is so 
depends upon two very palpable facts: First, that these tissues have 
been greatly excited and are already receiving as much blood as they 
can accommodate consistently with health: secondly, even though 
these tissues are classed with those of the surface, their protection 
from atmospheric influences by means of the thick box of horn incas- 
ing them renders them in this respect equivalent to internal organs. 

A more limited local action of cold may excite this disease, by driv- 
ing through water or washing the feet and legs while the animal is 
warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction take- place 
in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot 
results from an interference with the return How of blood which i- 
being sent to these organs in excess. These are more apt to be sim- 
ple cases <>f congestion, sood to recover, yet they may become true 
cases of laminitis. 

(5) Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does 
not seem to be clearly understood. Certainly they possess no specific 
action upon the lamina', for all animals are not alike affected, neither 
do they always produce these results in the same animal. Some of 
these food- cause a strong tendency to indigestion, and the consequent 
irritation of the alimentary canal may l>e so great as to warrant the 
belief that the lamina- are affected through sympathy. In other 
instances there i> no apparent interference with digestion nor evidence 
of any irritation of the mucous membranes, yet the disease is in 



PLATE XXXIV. 




Haines,del 



Stde Bonnes, 

afber Stonelien£e 



NavLcularDis&ase, 

altfir Stonetvenge . 



JLIUS BltN &. CO. I 



EUNfr BONE AND NAVICULAR DISEASE. 



LAMTNITIS, OR FOUNDER. 417 

some manner dependent upon the food for its inception. Bailey, 
wheat, and sometimes corn are the grains most apt to cause this dis- 
ease. With some horses there appears to be a particular suscepti- 
bility to this influence of corn, and the use of this grain is followed by 
inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days' to two weeks' time. 
In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn neither induces 
colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irritation whatever 
of the alimentary canal. 

(«>) Fortunately purgative medicines rarely cause inflammation of 
the lamina 1 . That it is, then, the result of sympathetic action is no 
doubt more than hypothetical, for when there is no derangement of 
the alimentary canal a dose of cathartic medicine will at times bring 
on severe laminitis. 

(7) Most all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic lami- 
nitis is a reality. In my opinion metastatic laminitis is nothing more 
nor less than concurrent laminitis, and presents little in any way pecul- 
iar outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause. The practi- 
tioner who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him, 
simply because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary 
disease, may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment. 
This form of laminitis is by no means commonly met with. It may be 
found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt with 
inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and 
Williams sometimes with bronchitis. 

Symptoms. — Laminitis is characterized by a congregation of symp- 
toms so well marked as scarcely to be misinterpreted by the most 
casual observer. They are nearly constant in their manifestations, 
modified by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced 
the disease, the previous condition of the patient, and the various 
other influences which operate in all diseases to some extent. They 
may be divided into general symptoms, which are concomitants of all 
cases of the disease, subject to variations in degree only, and special 
symptoms, or those which serve to determine the feet affected and the 
complications which may arise. 

General symptoms. — Usually, the first symptoms is the interfer- 
ence with locomotion. Occasionally the other symptoms are pre- 
sented first. As the lameness develops the pulse becomes accelerated, 
full, hard, and strikes the finger strongly ; the temperature soon rises 
several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes 106° F. ; it 
generally ranges between 102.5° and 105° F. The respirations are 
rapid and panting in character, the nostrils widely dilated, and the 
mucous membranes highly injected. The facial expression is anxious 
and indicative of the most acute suffering, while the body is more or 
less bedewed with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to diar- 

H. Doc. 790, 0!>-2 27 



418 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

rhea, or it may appear later as the result of the medicines used. The 
urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of increased specific 
gravity, owing to the water being eliminated by the skin instead of 
(he kidneys. The appetite is impaired, sometimes entirely lost, but 
thirst is greatly increased. The affected feet are hot and dry. and 
a re relieved as much as possible from bearing weight. Rapping them 
with a hammer, or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected 
member, causes intense pain. The artery at the fetlock throbs 
beneath the linger. 

Special symptoms. — Liability to affection varies in the different 
feet according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet 
may become the subject of this disease, although it appears more often 
in the fore feet than in the hind ones. This is due to the difference 
of function, i. c, that the fore feet are the bases of the columns of 
support, receiving nearly all of the body weight during progression 
and consequently most of the concussion, while the hind feet become 
simply the fulcra of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt 
from concussion. 

One foot. — Injuries and excessive functional performance are the 
causes of the disease in only one foot. The general symptoms, as a 
rule, are not severe, there being often no loss of appetite and no unu- 
sual thirst, while the pulse, temperature, and respiration remain about 
normal. The weight of the body is early thrown upon the opposite 
foot, and the affected one is extended, repeatedly raised from the flour, 
and then carefully replaced. When made to move forward the lame 
foot is either carried in the air while progression is accomplished by 
hopping with the healthy one, or else the heel of the first is placed 
upon the ground and receives little weight while the sound limb is 
quickly advanced. Progression in a straight line is more easy than 
turning toward the lame side. 

Both fore feet. — When both fore feet are affected the symptoms are 
well marked. The lameness is excessive and the animal almost im- 
movable. When standing the head hangs low down, or rests upon the 
manger as a means of support and to relieve the feet ; the fore feet 
are well extended so that the weight is thrown upon the heels, where 
the tissues are least sensitive, least inflamed, and most capable of 
relief by free effusion. The hind feet are brought forward beneath 
the body to receive as much weight as possible, thereby relieving the 
diseased ones. If progression is attempted, which rarely happens 
voluntarily during the first three or four days, it is accomplished with 
very great pain and lameness at the starting, which usually subsides 
to an extent after a few minutes 1 exercise. During this exercise, if 
the animal happens to step upon a small stone or other hard substance, 
he stumbles painfully and is excessively lame in the offended member 
for a number of steps, owing to the acute pain which pressure upon 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 419 

the sole causes in the tissues beneath. The manner of the progression 
is pathognomonic of the complaint. Sometimes the affected feet are 
simultaneously raised from the ground (the hind ones sustaining the 
weight), then advanced a short distance and carefully replaced; at 
almost the same moment the hind ones are quickly shuffled forward 
near to the center of gravitation. 

In other instances one foot at a time is advanced and placed with 
the heel upon the ground in the same careful manner, all causes of 
concussion being carefully avoided. In attempting to back the ani- 
mal he is found to be almost stationary, simply swaying the body 
backward on the haunches and elevating the toes of the diseased feet 
as they rest upon their heels. In attempting to turn either to the 
right or left he allows his head to be drawn to the one side to its full 
extent before moving, then makes his hind feet the axis around 
which the forward ones describe a shuffling circle. 

In a majority of cases of laminitis in the fore feet the animal per- 
sists in standing until he is nearly recovered. In other cases he as 
persistently lies, standing only when necessity seems to compel it, 
and then for as short a time as possible. If the recumbent position is 
once assumed, the relief experienced tempts the patient to seek it 
again ; and so we often find him down a greater part of the time. 
But this is not true of all cases; sometimes he will make the experi- 
ment, then cautiously guard against a repetition. Even in cases of 
enforced recumbency, he ofttimes takes advantage of the first 
opportunity and gets upon his feet, doggedly remaining there until 
again laid upon his side. How to explain this diversity of action 
I do not know ; theoretically the recumbent position is the only ap- 
propriate one, except when complications exist, and the one which 
should give the most comfort, yet it is rejected by very many 
patients and, no doubt, for some good reason. It has been suggested 
as an explanation that when the animal gets upon his feet after 
lying for a time the suffering is so greatly augmented that the mem- 
ory of this experience deters him from an attempted repetition. If 
this were true, the horse with the first attack must necessarily make 
the experiment before knowing the after effects of lying down, yet 
many remain standing without even an attempt at gaining this 
experimental knowledge. 

The most-favored position of the animal when down is on the 
broadside, with the feet and legs extended. While in this position 
the general symptoms greatly subside; the respirations and pulse be- 
come almost normal ; the temperature falls and the perspiration dries. 
It is with difficulty that he is made to arise. When he attempts it he 
gets up rapidly and " all of a heap," as it were, shifting quickly from 
one to the other foot until they become accustomed to the weight 



420 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

thrown upon them. Occasionally a patient will get up like a cow. 
rising upon the hind feet first. Although enforced exercise relieves 
to some extent the soreness, it is but temporary, for after a few 
minutes' rest it returns with all its former severity. 

Both Wind feet. — When only both hind feet are affected, they are. 
while standing, maintained in the same position as when only the fore 
ones are the subjects of the disease, but with an entirely different 
object in view. Instead of 'being there to receive weight, they are so 
advanced that the heels only may receive what little weight is neces- 
sarily imposed on them: the fore feet at the same time are placed 
well back beneath the body, where they become the main supports; 
the animal standing, as Williams describes it, " all of a heap." 

Progression is even more difficult now than when the disease is 
confined to the anterior extremities. The fore feet are dubiously 
advanced a short distance and the hind ones brought forward with a 
sort of kangaroo hop. that results in an apparent loss of equilibrium 
which the animal is a few moments in regaining. The general symp- 
toms, or. in other words, the degree of suffering, seem more severe 
than where the disease affects the fore feet alone. The standing posi- 
tion is not often maintained, the patient seeking relief in recumbency. 
This fact is easily understood when Ave consider how cramped and 
unnatural is the position he assumes while standing and, if it were 
maintained for any considerable length of time, would, no doubt, 
excite the disease in the fore feet, as explained by D'Arboval. 

All fanr feet. — Laminitis of all four feet is but uncommonly met 
with. The author has seen but three such cases. In all these the posi- 
tion assumed was nearly normal. All the feet were slightly advanced, 
and first one, then another, momentarily raised from the ground and 
carefully replaced, this action being kept up almost continually dur- 
ing the time the animal remained standing. The suffering is most 
acute, the appetite lost. and. although the patient lies most of the time. 
the temperature remains too high. The pulse and respirations are 
greatly accelerated, the body covered with sweat, and bed sores are 
unpleasant accompaniments. 

Course. — The course which laminitis takes varies greatly in differ- 
ent cases, being influenced more or less by the exciting cause, the 
animal's previous condition, the acuteness of the attack, and the sub- 
sequent treatment. The first symptoms rarely exhibit themselves 
while the animal is at his work, although we occasionally see the gait 
impaired by stumbling, the body covered with a profuse sweat, and 
the respirations become blowing in character as premonitions of the 
oncoming disease; but. as a rule, nothing i< noted amiss with the ani- 
mal until he has stood for some time after coming in from work, when, 
in attempting to move him. he is found very stiff. Like all conges- 
tions, the early symptoms usually develop rapidly; yet this is not 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 421 

always the case, for often there appears to be no well-defined period 
of congestion, the disease seemingly commencing at a point and 
gradually spreading until a large territory is involved in the morbid 
process. 

Simple congestion. — Those cases of simple congestion of the laminae, 
which we erroneously call laminitis, are rapidly developed, the symp- 
toms are but moderately severe, and but one to three days required 
for recovery. There are no structural changes and but a moderate 
exudate. This is rapidly reabsorbed, leaving the parts in the same 
condition as they were previous to the attack. If the congestion has 
been excessive, a rupture of some of the capillaries will be found, a 
condition more apt to obtain where the animal is made to continue 
work after a development of symptoms has begun. 

True, the majority of these last-described cases prove to be the lam- 
initis in fact, yet the congestion may pass away and the extravasated 
blood be absorbed without inflammation sufficient to warrant calling 
it laminitis. The seat of greatest congestion will always be found in 
the neighborhood of the toe, because of the increased vascularity of 
that part, and, although at times it is limited to the podophyllous 
tissue alone, any or all parts of the keratogenous membrane may be 
affected by the congestion and followed finally by inflammation. 

Acute. — In the acute form of laminitis the symptoms may all de- 
velop rapidly, or it may commence by the appearance of a little sore- 
ness of the feet which in twenty-four or forty-eight hours develops 
into a well-marked case. This peculiarity of development is due to 
one of two causes. Either the congestion is general, but takes place 
slowly, or else it begins in one or more points and gradually spreads 
throughout the laminae. These acute cases generally run their course 
in from one or two weeks. Usually a culmination of the symptoms 
is reached, if the patient is properly treated, in from three to five 
days; then evidences of recovery are discernible in favorable cases. 
The lameness improves, the other symptoms gradually subside, and 
eventually health is regained. It is in these cases that a strong tend- 
ency to disorganization of a destructive character exists, hence it 
is we see so many recover imperfectly with marked structural changes 
permanently remaining. 

Subacute. — Subacute laminitis is most often seen as a termination 
of the acute form, although it may exist independent of or precede an 
acute attack. It is characterized by the mildness of its symptoms, 
slow course, and moderate tissue changes. It may be present a long 
time before any pathological lesions result other than those found in 
the acute form, and when these changes do take place they should 
rather be viewed as complications. 

Chronic. — Chronic laminitis is a term used by many to designate 
any of the sequelae of the acute and subacute forms of this disease. 



422 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Pure chronic inflammation of the laminae is not very commonly met 
with, but is most frequent in horses that have long done fast track 
work. They have " fever in the feet " at all times and are continually 
sore, both conditions being aggravated by work. Like chronic in- 
flammation of other parts, there is a strong tendency to the develop- 
ment of new connective tissue, which, by its pressure upon the blood 
vessels, interferes with nutrition. Wasting of the coffin bone and in- 
flammation of its covering with caries is not unusual. The continued 
fever and impaired function of secretion result in the production of 
a horn deficient in elasticity, somewhat spongy in character, and in- 
clined to crumble. In some cases of " soreness " in horses used to 
hard or fast work, there is evident weakness of the coats of the ves- 
sels, brought on by repeated functional exhaustion. Here slight work 
brings on congestion, which results in serous effusion and temporary 
symptoms similar to those of chronic laminitis. 

Com plication*. — Complications concurrent with or supervening 
upon laminitis are frequent and varied, and are often dependent upon 
causes not fully understood. 

Excessive purgation is one of the simplest of these, and not usually 
attended with dangerous consequences. It rarely occurs unless in- 
duced by a purgative, and the excessive action of the medicine is prob- 
ably to be explained upon the theory that the mucous membrane 
sympathizes with the diseased laminae, is irritable, and readily be- 
comes overexcited. The discharges are thin and watery, sometimes 
offensively odorous, and occasionally persist in spite of treatment. It 
may prove disastrous to the welfare of the patient by the rapid 
exhaustion which it causes, preventing resolution of the laminitis. 
and may even cause death. 

Septicemia and pyemia. — Septicemia and pyemia are unusual com- 
plications and are seen only in the most severe cases, where bed sores 
arc present or suppuration of the lamina? results. They die. as a rule, 
within three days after showing signs of the complication. 

Pneumonia — the so-called metastatic — needs no special considera- 
tion, for in its lesions and symptoms it does not differ from ordinary 
pneumonia, although it may be overlooked entirely by the practi- 
tioner. Examinations of the chest should be made every day, so as 
to detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid. 

sidebones. — A rapid development of sidebones is one of the compli- 
cations, or, perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in 
practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral carti- 
lages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of the 
lime salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the " bones " are developed 
in a few weeks; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their 
growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of the laminitis, 
so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the car- 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 423 

tilages may commence as early as the first week of the laminitis ; and 
although the trouble in the laminae is removed in the course of a fort- 
night the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal retains the 
shuffling gait, the sidebones continue to grow, and the patient usually 
remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally pre- 
vents the patient recovering his natural gait, and the practitioner 
receives unjust censure for a condition of affairs he could neither 
foresee nor prevent. 

The laminitic process occasionally extends to the covering of the 
coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis 
the development of " low ringbone " is seen, and it is apparently 
dependent upon the disease of the laminae for its exciting cause. The 
impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less 
marked here than in sidebones. The coronet remains hot and sensi- 
tive and somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little 
lameness is present. This lameness persists and the deposits of new 
bone may readily be detected. 

Suppuration of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common 
complication, and even when present in its most limited form is 
always a serious matter ; but when it becomes extensive, and especially 
where the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results 
are apt to be fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not 
appear to be excessive. It is rich in leucocytes and seems to have 
caused detachment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the 
formation of pus in some instances; in others the tissues are still 
attached to the horn and the suppuration takes place in the deeper 
tissues. 

Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive 
tissues of the foot during laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed 
instead of being discharged upon the surface, but generally the process 
begins in the neighborhood of the toe and spreads backward and 
upward toward the coronet, finally separating the horn from the 
coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it spreads over the 
sole and eventually the entire hoof is loosened and sloughs away, 
leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. In other instances, 
and these are generally the. cases not considered unusually severe, the 
suppuration begins at the coronary band ; it extends but a short dis- 
tance into the tissues, yet destroys the patient by separating the hoof 
from the coronary band, upon which it depends for support and 
growth. This form of the suppurative process usually begins in 
front; for it is this part of the coronary band that is always most 
actively affected with inflammation, and consequently it is here that 
impairments first occur. 

Suppuration of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensi- 
tive laminae and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases 



424 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

where there is a dropping of the coffin hone, and in other instances 
where the effusion at this point is so great as to arrest the production 
of horn and uncover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of 
injury it begins at the toe and spreads backward, and. if not relieved 
by opening the sole, escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is 
much less serious than in other parts of the foot. 

If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from sloughing of 
the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of very imperfect horn 
may he developed after a time: hut unless the animal is to he kept for 
breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and 
death should relieve the suffering. When only the sole sloughs 
recovery takes place with proper treatment. 

Peditis. — This is the term that Williams applies to that serious 
complication of Iaminitis where not only the lamina 1 , but the perios- 
teum and coffin bone also are subjects of the inflammatory proess. 
Neither is this all; for in some of these eases of peditis acute inflam- 
mation of the coffin joint is present, and occasionally suppuration of 
the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation i> in 
the outer layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condition 
than is recognized by practitioners generally. Intimate contiguity of 
structures is the predisposing cause, for the disease either spreads 
from the original seat or the complication occurs as one of the primary 
results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases where the exudate 
separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gangrene, and 
superficial caries are common results. If infiltration of the bone 
tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by pressure upon the vessels 
and death of the coffin bone follows. Grave constitutional symptoms 
mark these changes, which soon prove fatal. 

In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy to determine 
its presence positively, for there are no special symptoms by which it 
may be distinguished from pure Iaminitis. In a majority of acute 
cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to 
seventh day. it is safe to suspect periostitis, particularly if the coro- 
nets are very hot, the pulse full and hard, and the lameness acute. 
In the fortunately rare 1 cases where the bone is affected with inflam- 
mation and suppuration, the agony of the patient is intense; he occu- 
pies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for 
more than a few minutes at a time: suffers from the most careful 
handling of the affected feet: maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, 
high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these 
cases the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of sup- 
puration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception 
of the disease proves the inefficiency of any treatment which may have 
been used and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 425 

between the tenth and twentieth days either from exhaustion or 
pyemic infection. 

Gangrene occurs in the periosteum as the result of excessive detach- 
ment from the bone and compression due to excessive exudation. 
Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject to the same fate occa- 
sionally, and at times large territories will be found dead. 

Pvmiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the neigh- 
borhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive 
tissues more or less exposed. It is not a complication of laminitis 
only, for it is seen under other conditions. Williams has described 
the horny tissue of pumiced sole as " weak, cheesy, or spongy, like 
macerated horn, or even grumous." This crumbling horn, when 
critically examined, shows almost an entire absence of the cohesive 
matter which unites the healthy fibers, while the fibers themselves are 
irregular and granular in appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon 
an impairment of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole, or 
upon a separation of the horny from the soft tissues which maintain 
its vitality. 

Punctured wounds of the foot, accompanied by any considerable 
destruction of the soft tissues, present the same peculiarities of horn 
in the immediate neighborhood of the injury. Bruises of the sole are 
followed by this change when the exudation has been excessive and 
has separated the horn from the living tissues. True, in these eases 
Ave rarely see the soft tissues laid bare, for the reason that new horn 
is constantly secreted and replaces that undergoing disintegration. 

Laminitis presents three different conditions under which pumiced 
sole may appear : First, where free exudation separates the horn from 
the other tissues, or where the process of inflammation arrests the 
production of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting 
membrane ; secondly, where depression of the coffin bone causes pres- 
sure ujgpn and arrests the formation of horn; and, thirdly, where the 
elevation of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone 
and induces the same condition. 

Pumiced sole, from simple exudation and separation of tissues, is 
of little importance, for the reason given above in connection with 
bruises; but when suppuration occurs in restricted portions of the 
foot in conjunction with laminitis, it always lays bare the tissues 
beneath and impairs the animal's value temporarily. Recovery takes 
place after a few weeks by the tissues horning over, as in injuries 
attended by the same process. Depression of the coffin bone is not 
sufficient within itself to cause pumiced sole; for, if the relative 
change in the bone takes place slowly, or if the horn is thin, the sole 
becomes convex from gradual pressure, and the soft tissues adapt 
themselves to the change without having their function materially 



426 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

impaired. But when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues are 
destroyed, the horn rapidly crumbles away and the toe of the hone 
comes through. In many of these cases the soft tissues remain 
uncovered for months. When they are eventually covered it is with 
a thin, slightly adherent horn that stands but little or no wear. Tin' 
sole being now convex, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight by 
coining in contact with the ground, and hence it is that these animals 
are generally incurable cripples. 

In (he majority of cases where the sole is raised to meet the pedal 
bone and pumiced sole occurs, it is due not to pressure of the bone 
from within (for the tissues are capable of adapting themselves to the 
gradual change), but to impaired vitality of the sensitive tissues from 
the inflammation and to the constant concussion and pressure applied 
from without during progression. To this is to be added the paring 
away of the horn by the smith when applying the shoe, thereby keep- 
ing the sole at this point too thin. 

Turning up of the toe. — In many cases of laminitis which have 
become chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up ; that the 
heels are longer than natural ; while the hoof near the coronary band 
is circled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in cases where 
recovery has taken place, and in other diseases than laminitis, these 
ridges may be found in the wall of the foot. But in such cases the 
ridges are equally distant from each other all around the foot, while 
in turning up of the toe the ridges are w T ide apart at the heels and 
close together in front, as seen in the figure (Plate XXXI, fig. 4). 
These ridges are produced by periods of interference with the growth 
of horn alternating with periods during which a normal or nearly 
normal growth takes place. When the toe turns up it is because the 
coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels 
it grows much faster, causing marked deformity. 

Animals so affected always place 1 the abnormally long heel first 
upon the ground, not alone because the heel is too long, nor as in acute 
or subacute laminitis to relieve the pain, but for the simple reason that 
the toe is too short and lifted away from its natural position. To 
bring the toe to the ground the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. 

The pain and impairment of function in these cases always result in 
marked atrophy of the muscles of the forearm and shoulder, and to 
some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore legs 
advances the shoulder joints so far forward as to cause a sunken 
appearance of the breast, which the laity recognize as "chest 
founder." 

The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are the 
most interesting pathologically of all the complications of laminitis. 

Treatment. — The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied 



LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. 427 

than in any other disease, and }^et a large number of cases recover for 
even the poorest practitioner. 

Prevention. — To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an 
unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the 
highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result 
from the simplest causes, especially when the soundest judgment may 
not be able to determine the extent of the disease-resisting powers of 
the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall in every 
instance constitute an overexcitement, it is not strange that horse 
owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional transgression. 
If the disease was dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of 
the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, some 
measures might be instituted that would prove generally preventive. 
But the predisposing causes are common conditions and often can not 
be remedied. That which is gentle work in one instance may incite 
disease in another. That which is food to-day may to-morrow prove 
disastrous to health. Finally, necessary medical interference, no mat- 
ter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint than that 
which are being treated. Notwithstanding these difficulties there are 
some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the 
development of an unusual number of cases. First of all the predis- 
posing causes must be removed where possible ; when this is impossi- 
ble unusual care must be taken not to bring into operation an exciting 
cause. Fat animals should, under no circumstances, have hard work. 
If the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great, all 
horses should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to 
it, the tissues hardened, and their excitability reduced to a minimum. 
Green horses should have moderate work, particularly when taken 
from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements; for increased con- 
cussion, changed hygienic conditions, and artificial living readily 
become active causes of the disease under these circumstances. Army 
horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient prep- 
aration, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring are among the 
most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy 
and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, the in- 
cumbrances must be as light as possible and the journey interspersed 
with frequent rests, for this allows the laminae to regain their 
impaired functional activity and to withstand much more work with- 
out danger. Furthermore, it permits early detection of an attack, 
and prevents working after the disease begins, which renders subse- 
quent medication more effective by cutting the process short at the 
stage of congestion. 

All animals when resting immediately after work should be pro- 
tected from cold air or drafts. If placed in a stable that is warm 



428 DISEASES OF THE BOUSE. 

and without dra ft, no covering is accessary : under opposite conditions 
blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of labor 

have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming 
in warm from work be "cooled out " by slow walking until the per- 
spiration has dried and the circulation and respiration are again 

normal. Animals -topped on the road even for a few moments should 
always be protected from rapid change of temperature by appropriate 
clothing. If it can be avoided, horses that are working should never 
be driven or ridden through water. If unavoidable, they should be 
cooled oil' before passing through, and then kept moving until com- 
pletely dried. The same care is to be practiced with washing the legs 
in cold water when just in from work, for occasionally it proves the 
cause of a most acute attack of this disease. 

Unusual changes in the manner of applying the shoes should not be 
hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must 
not be substituted at once; but the change, if necessary, should 
gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves 
to the altered conditions. If radical changes are imperative, as is 
sometimes the case, the work must be so reduced in quantity and 
quality that it can not excite the disease. 

Laminitis from the effects of purgatives can scarcely be guarded 
against. I can not determine from the cases in which I have seen this 
result that there are any conditions present that would warn us of 
danger. The trouble does not seem to depend upon the size of the 
purgative, the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity 
and severity with which the remedy acts. Medicines known to have 
unusual irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used only 
when necessity demands it, and then in moderate doses. 

Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer 
from this disease through the use of foods. When an attack can be 
ascribed to any particular food it should be withheld, unless in small 
quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should 
receive but a little of it at a time, mixed with bran. oats, or other food, 
until it has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is less safe 
in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be 
fed with caution during spring and summer months. 

When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the shoe of the oppo- 
site member should be removed, and cold water frequently applied to 
the well foot. At the same lime use the slings if the subject remains 
standing. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked: to 
guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, 
and various other influences must be carefully considered. Watering 
while warm is a pernicious habit, and. unless the animal is accustomed 
to it. is apt to result in some disorder, ofttimes in Laminitis. 



laminitis, or founder. 429 

Curative measures. — Incases of simple congestion of the laminae the 
body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks administered. The 
feet should be placed in a warm bath to increase the return flow of 
blood. In course of an hour the feet may be changed to cold water 
and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional 
symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses 
of saltpeter, three times a day in the water, answer the purpose. In 
cases of active congestion the warm footbaths should be omitted and 
cold ones used from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands 
the same treatment, with laxatives if there is constipation, and the ad- 
dition of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued 
for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute lami- 
nitis, what has been called the " American treatment " is simple and 
efficient. It consists solely in the exhibition of large doses of nitrate 
of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold 
water. 

Three to 4 ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every 
six hours, is the proper dose. The laminitis frequently subsides 
within a week. These large doses may be continued for a week with- 
out danger ; under no circumstances have I seen the kidneys irritated 
to excess or other unfavorable effects produced. 

The feet should be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 45° 
to 50° F., unless the animal is lying down, when swabs are to be used 
and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water keeps the 
horn soft and moist and acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by re- 
ducing the temperature. Cold maintains the vitality and disease- 
resisting qualities of the soft tissues, tones up the coats of the blood 
vessels, diminishes the supply of blood, and limits the exudation. 
Furthermore, cold has an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues 
and relieves the pain. 

Aconite may be given in conjunction with the niter where the heart 
is greatly excited and beats strongly. Ten-drop doses, repeated 
every two hours for twenty-four hours, are sufficient. The use of 
cathartics is dangerous, for they may excite superpurgation. Usually 
the niter will relieve the constipation, yet if it should prove obstinate, 
laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both general and local, 
should be guarded against. The shoes must be early removed and 
the soles left unpared. 

Paring of the soles presents two objections: First, while it may 
temporarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it favors greater 
exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects. 
Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the 
animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when con- 
valescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exercise 



430 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided; for 
although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness, it maintains 
the irritation, increases the exudation, and postpones recovery. 

If at the end of the fifth or sixth day prominent symptoms of 
recovery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around 
the coronet and omit the niter for about forty-eight hours. When the 
blister is well set, the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one blister 
does not remove the soreness it may be repeated, or the actual cautery 
applied. The same treatment should be adopted where sidebones 
form or inflammation of the coronet bone follows. When the sole 
breaks through, exposing the soft tissues, the feet must be carefully 
shod with thin heels and thick toes where there is a tendency to walk 
on the heels, and the sole must be well protected with appropriate 
dressings and pressure over the exposed parts. "When there is turn- 
ing up of the toe, blistering of the coronet, in front only, sometimes 
stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the 
only treatment that will enable the animal to do light, slow work. 

Where suppuration of the laminae is profuse, it is better to destroy 
your patient at once and relieve his suffering; but if the suppuration 
is limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment, 
as in acute cases, may induce recovery and should always be tried. If 
from bed sores or other causes septicemia or pyemia is feared, the 
bisulphite of soda, in half-ounce doses, may be given in conjunction 
with tonics and such other treatment as is indicated in these disease-. 

As to enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it 
in the majority of cases, for I think the patient usually assumes what- 
ever position gives most comfort. No doubt recumbency diminishes 
the amount of blood sent to the feet, and may greatly relieve the pain, 
so that forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be 
renewed if he thereafter persists in standing. 

"Where the animal persistently stands, or where constant lying indi- 
cates it (to prevent extensive sores), the patient should be placed in 
slings. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use 
-lings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of hi^ 
weight and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must 
not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery may never 
be effected. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., 
Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. 

[Revised in 1903 by the author.] 

As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the 
skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted 
for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all 
points, so that shades of difference in inflammatory and other diseased 
processes are easily seen and distinguished from one another. In the 
horse the hairy covering serves to some extent to mask the symptoms, 
and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the term 
" mange " to all alike, and it is only a step further to apply the same 
treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet even in the 
hairy quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not 
be done in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the 
skin — the mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digest- 
ive organs, the urinary and generative apparatus. Diseased processes, 
therefore, which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to 
distinguish from one another, can usually be separated and recognized 
when appearing in the skin. 

Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering 
presents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales, 
hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that 
any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal 
disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympathy of differ- 
ent points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain 
skin disorders causative of internal disease and certain internal dis- 
eases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the 
skin with an impermeable coating of glue is speedily fatal ; a cold 
draft striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura ; 
a skin eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the 
liver, the kidneys, or even the lungs; simple burns of the skin cause 
inflammations of internal organs, and inflammations of such or- 
gans cause in their turn eruptions on the skin. The relations — 
nervous, secretory, and absorptive — between the skin and internal 
organs are most extensive and varied, and therefore a visible disorder 
in the skin may point at once and specifically to a particular fault in 
diet, to an injudicious use of cold water when the system is heated, to 
a fault in drainage, ventilation, or lighting of the stables, to indiges- 
tion, to liver disease, to urinary disorder, etc. 

431 



432 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

STRUCT! RE OF THE SKIN. 

The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1) The superficial non- 
vascular (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle, or epidermis; and 
('2) the dee]) vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium, dermis, 
or true skin. 

The cuticle is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less 
modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evapo 
ration and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried 
in the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff. 
The dee)> stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded 
cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numer- 
ous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations, or branches. 
by which they communicate with one another and with the superficial 
layer of cells in the true skin beneath. Through these prolongations 
they receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and pass 
on liquids absorbed by the skin into the vessels of the true skin 
beneath. The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective 
power on what they shall take up for their own nourishment and on 
what they shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, cer- 
tain agents, like iodine and belladonna, are readily admitted, whereas 
others, like arsenic, are excluded by the sound, unbroken epidermis. 
Between the deep and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a 
thin translucent layer (septum lucidum) consisting of a double 
stratum of cells, and forming a medium of transition from the deep 
spheroidal to the superficial scaly cuticle. 

The true skin, or dermis, has a framework of interlacing bundles of 
white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and 
line in the superficial, where they approach the cuticle Between the 
fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become 
finer as they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, 
glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. 

The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute 
conical elevations, or papilla, projecting into the deep portion of the 
cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent 
membrane. This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capil- 
lary blood vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensa- 
tion and the point from which the nutrienl liquid is supplied to the 
cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active 
changes of inflammation are especially concentrated; it is the im- 

Description of Fig. 1. Plate XXXV: ic. Epidermis. i>. Derma, l. Horny layer 
of i Ik- epidermis. 2. Stratum mucosum. •".. Papillary layer of the derma. 4. 
Excretory duct of n sudoriparous glaud. 5. Glomerule of a sudoriparous gland. 
6. Hair follicle. 7. Sebaceous gland. 8. Internal sheath of the hair follicle. 
!». Hulb of the hair. 10. Mass of adipose tissue. 



PLATE XXXV 




lertucal section through slcin,. 
after Chauveau . 



Hair diseased, by 
Trichophyton Tonsurans 

: Mecnin. 




Hair diseased by 
Achorion Schonleuu 

tit'li-i Mi''«iiin 







Micros pair at Atlouiiui from 
Parasitic Pityriasis m the horse-. 

after i 



DISEASES ()!•' THE SKI N 



STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 433 

mediately superposed cell layers (mucous) that become morbidly 
increased in the earlier stages of inflammation; it is on the surface 
of the papillary layer that the liquid is thrown out which raises the 
cuticle in the form of a blister, and it is at this point mainly that pus 
forms in the ordinary pustule. 

The fibrous bundles of the true skin contain plain muscular fibers, 
which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence 
of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin dis- 
eases and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening, 
or corrugation of the skin, contributing to produce the " hidebound " 
of the horseman. Other minute muscular filaments are extended 
from the surface of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which 
the hair is inclined, and under the same stimulating influences pro- 
duce that erection of the hair which is familiarly known as " staring 
coat." Besides these, the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion 
of red voluntary muscle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and 
by which the animal can not only dislodge insects and other irritants, 
but even shake off the harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides 
of the trunk and the lower portions of the neck and head, the parts 
unprotected by the mane and tail, and serves to throw the skin of 
these parts into puckers, or ridges, in certain irritating skin diseases. 

The hair's are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla 
lodged in the depth of a follicle or sac, hollowed out in the skin and 
extending to its deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of 
epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become 
the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of 
cells firmly adherent to each other by a tough intercellular substance, 
and overlapping each other like slates on a roof in a direction toward 
the free end. 

The sebaceous glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacs 
and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous 
network representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells repre- 
senting the mucous layer of the cuticle. The oily secretion gives gloss 
to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the 
skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of 
water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides 
those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous isolated 
sebaceous glands, opening directly on the surface of the skin, produ- 
cing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. These are found 
in large numbers in the folds of the skin, where chafing would be 
likely if the surface were dry, as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary 
glands, and inner side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the 
hollow of the heel, beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 28 



434 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of the elbow, on the lips, nostrils, and eyelids. When closed by dried 
secretion or otherwise these glands may become distended so as to 
form various-sized swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they 
may throw out offensive liquid discharges, as in " grease," or produce 
red, tender fungous growths (" grapes "). 

The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of 
simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a 
spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true 
skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste 
products out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the 
entire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery 
secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment, 
as besides regulating the animal heat and excreting impurities, they 
influence largely the internal organs through the intimate sympathy 
maintained between them and the skin. 

Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their 
most marked features, into — 

(1) Those in which congestion and inflammation are the most 
marked features, varying according to the grade or form into (a) 
congestion with simple redness, dryness, and heat, but no eruption 
(t it/thema) ; (b) inflammation with red-pointed elevations, but no 
blisters {papules) ; (c) inflammation with fine conical elevations, 
each surmounted by a minute blister (vesicle); (d) inflammation 
with a similar eruption but with larger blisters, like half a pea and 
upwards (bullae); (e) inflammation with a similar eruption, but 
with a small sac of white creamy pus on the summit of each elevation 
(pustules) ; (/) the formation of pustules implicating the superficial 
layer of the true skin, a small portion of which dies and is thrown off 
as a slough, or " core " (boils) ; (g) the formation of round, nodular, 
transient swellings in the true skin (tubercles) ; and (h) the excessive 
production of scales, or dandruff' (scaly or squamous affections). 

(2) Diseases in which there are only deranged sensations of itch- 
ing, heat, tenderness, etc. (neurosis). 

(3) Diseased growths, such as warts, callosities, horny growth-, 
cancer, etc. 

(4) Diseases due to parasites, animal and vegetable. 

(5) Diseases connected with a specific poison, such as horsepox, 
erysipelas, anthrax, farcy, or cutaneous glanders, etc. 

(6) Physical injuries, like wounds, burns, scalds, etc. 

CONGESTION (RED EFFLORESCENCE, OR ERYTHEMA ). 

This is a congested or slightly inflamed condition of the skin, unat- 
tended by any eruption. The part is slightly swollen, hot, tender, 
or itchy, and dry. and if the -kin is white there Ts redness. The red- 



STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. 435 

ness is effaced by pressure, but reappears instantly when the pressure 
is removed. Unless in transient cases the hairs are liable to be shed. 
It may be looked on as the first stage of inflammation, and therefore 
when it becomes aggravated it may merge in part or in whole into a 
papular, vesicular, or pustular eruption. 

Erythema may arise from a variety of causes, and is often named 
in accordance with its most prominent cause. Thus the chilling, or 
partial freezing, of a part will give rise to a severe reaction and con- 
gestion. When snowy or icy streets have been salted this may extend 
to severe inflammation with vesicles, pustules, or even sloughs of 
circumscribed portions of the skin of the pastern (chillblain, frost- 
bite). Heat and burning have a similar effect, and this often comes 
from exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The skin that does not 
perspire is the most subject, and hence the white face or white limb 
of a horse becoming dried by the intensity of the sun's rays often 
suffers to the exclusion of the rest of the body (white face and foot 
disease). The febrile state of the general system is also a potent 
cause, hence the white-skinned horse is rendered the more liable if 
kept on a heating ration of buckwheat, or even of wheat or maize. 
Contact of the skin with oil of turpentine or other essential oils, with 
irritant liquids, vegetable or mineral, with rancid fats, with the acrid 
secretions of certain animals, like the irritating toad, with pus, sweat, 
tears, urine, or liquid feces, will produce congestion or even inflam- 
mation. Chafing is a common cause, and is especially liable to affect 
the fat horse between the thighs, by the side of the sheath or scrotum, 
on the inner side of the elbow, or where the harness chafes on the 
poll, shoulder, back, breastbone, and under the tail. The accumula- 
tion of sweat and dust between the folds of the skin and on the sur- 
face of the harness, and the specially acrid character of the sweat in 
certain horses contribute to chafing or " intertrigo." The heels often 
become congested, owing to the irritation caused by the short bristly 
hairs in clipped heels. Again, congestion may occur from friction by 
halter, harness, or other foreign body under the pastern, or inside the 
thigh or arm, or by reason of blows from another foot (cutting, inter- 
fering, overreach). Finally erythema is especially liable to occur in 
spring when the coat is being shed, and the hair follicles and general 
surface are exposed and irritable in connection with the dropping of 
the hairs. 

If due only to a local irritant, congestion will usually disappear 
when such cause has been removed, but when the feeding or system 
is at fault these conditions must be first corrected. While the coat is 
being shed the susceptibility will continue, and the aim should be to 
prevent the disease developing and advancing so as to weaken the 
skin, render the susceptibility permanent, and lay the foundation of 



436 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

persistent or frequently recurring skin disease. Hence at such times 
the diet should be nonstimulating ; any excess of grain, and above all 
of buckwheat, Indian corn, or wheat, being avoided. A large grain 
ration should not be given at once on return from hard work, when 
the general system and stomach are unable to cope with it; the animal 
should not be given more than a swallow or two of cold water when 
perspiring and fatigued; nor should he be allowed a full supply of 
water just after his grain ration; he should not be overheated or 
exhausted by work, nor should dried sweat and dust be allowed to 
accumulate on the skin or on the harness pressing on it. The expo- 
sure of the affected heels to damp, mud, and snow, and, above all, to 
melting snow, should be guarded against; light, smooth, well-fitting 
harness must be secured, and where the saddle or collar irritates an 
incision should be made in them above and below the part that chafes, 
and, the padding between having been removed, the lining should be 
beaten so as to make a hollow. A zinc shield in the upper angle of 
the collar will often prevent chafing in front of the withers. 

Treatment. — Wash the chafed skin and apply salt water (one-half 
ounce to the quart), extract of witch-hazel, a weak solution of oak 
baik, or camphorated spirit. If the surface is raw use bland powders, 
such as oxide of zinc, lycopodium, starch, or smear the surface with 
vaseline, or with 1 ounce of vaseline intimately mixed with one-half 
dram each of sugar of lead and opium.- In cases of chafing rest must 
be strictly enjoined. Where there is constitutional disorder or acrid 
sweat, 1 ounce cream of tartar or a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda 
may be given tw T ice daily. 

CONGESTION, WITH SMALL PIMPLES, OR PAPULES. 

In this affection there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, 
together with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy seed to a 
coffee bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the 
finger where the hair is scanty. In white skins they vary from the 
j^alest to the darkest red. All do not retain the papular type, but 
some go on to form blisters (eczema, bulla 1 ) or pustules, or dry up 
into scales, or break out into open sores, or extend into larger swell- 
ings (tubercles). The majority, however, remaining as pimples, 
characterize the disease. When very itchy the rubbing breaks them 
open, and the resulting sores and scales hide the true nature of the 
erupt ion. 

The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and 
in the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple conges- 
tion and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is 
more pronounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, 
the animal rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is espe- 



INFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN. 437 

cially severe in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, 
and there the disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the 
horse is rendered virtually useless. 

The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many 
such cases the swelling extends wider into a buttonlike elevation, 
one-half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the 
effects of the poison ivy and poison sumac. 

Treatment. — In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply 
the same general remedies as for simple congestion. In the more 
inveterate cases use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphide of potassium 
in 2 quarts water, to which a little Castile soap has been added; or 
use a wash with one-half ounce oil of tar, 2 ounces Castile soap, and 
20 ounces water. 

INFLAMMATION WITH BLISTERS, OR ECZEMA. 

In this the skin is congested, thickened, warm (white skins are red- 
dened), and shows a thick crop of little blisters formed by effusions of 
a straw-colored fluid between the true skin and the cuticle. The blis- 
ters may be of any size from a millet seed to a pea, and often crack 
open and allow the escape of the fluid, which concretes as a slightly 
yellowish scab or crust around the roots of the hairs. This exudation 
and incrustation are especially common where the hairs are long, 
thick, and numerous, as in the region of the pastern of heavy draft 
horses. The term eczema is now applied very generally to eruptions 
of all kinds that depend on internal disorders or constitutional con- 
ditions, and that tend to recurrences and inveteracy. Eczema may 
appear on any part of the body, but in horses it is especially common 
on the heels and the lower parts of the limbs, and less frequently on 
the neck, shoulder, and abdomen. The limbs appear to be especially 
liable because of their dependent position, all blood having to return 
from them against the action of gravity, and congestions and swell- 
ings being common, because of the abundance of blood vessels in this 
part of the skin, and because of the frequent contact with the irritant 
dung and urine and their ammonical emanations. The legs further 
suffer from contact with wet and mud when at work, from snow and 
ice, from drafts of cold air on the wet limbs, from washing with 
caustic soaps, or from the relaxing effects of a too deep and abundant 
litter. Among other causes may be named indigestion and the pres- 
ence of irritant matters in the blood and sweat, the result of patent 
medicated foods and condition powders (aromatics, stimulants), green 
food, new hay, new oats, buckwheat, wheat, maize, diseased potatoes, 
smut, or ergot, in grains, decomposing green food, brewers' grains, or 
kitchen garbage. The excitement in the skin, caused by shedding 
the coat, lack of grooming, hot weather, hot boiled or steamed food, 



438 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

con. lines to the eruption. Lastly, any sudden change of food may 
induce it. 

The blisters may in part go on to suppuration so that vesicles and 
pustules often appear on the same patch, and when raw from rubbing 
the true nature of the eruption may be completely masked. In high- 
fed horses, kept in close stables with little work, eczema of the limbs 
may last for months and years. It is a very troublesome affection in 
draft stallions. 

Treatment. — This disease is so often the result of indigestion that a 
laxative of 1 pound Glauber's salts, in 3 or 4 quarts water or 1$ pints 
olive oil, is often demanded to clear away irritants from the alimen- 
tary canal. Following this, in recent and acute cases, give 2 drams 
of acetate or bicarbonate of potash twice a day in the drinking water. 
If the bowels still become costive, give daily 1 ounce sulphate of soda 
and 20 grains powdered mix vomica. In debilitated horses combine 
the mix vomica with one-half ounce powdered gentian root. As a 
wash for the skin use 1 dram bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram carbolic 
acid in a quart of water, after having cleansed the surface with tepid 
water. Employ the same precautions as regards feeding, stabling, 
and care of harness as in simple congestion of the skin. 

In the more inveterate forms of eczema more active treatment is 
required. Soak the scabs in fresh sweet oil, and in a few hours 
remove these with tepid water and Castile soap ; then apply an oint- 
ment of sulphur or iodide of sulphur day by day. If this seems to 
be losing its effect after a week, change for mercurial ointment or a 
solution of sulphide of potassium, or of hyposulphite of soda, 3 drams 
to the quart of water. In these cases the animal may take a course of 
sulphur (1 ounce daily), bisulphite of soda (one-half ounce daily), or 
of arsenic (5 grains daily) mixed with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda. 

INFLAMMATION WITH PUSTULES. 

In this affection the individual elevations on the inflamed skin 
show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus, in place of the 
clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a 
hazelnut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distin- 
guished by the watery contents and the cordlike swelling, extending 
from the pustules along the line of the veins, and those of boils by the 
inflammation and sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair 
on the pustule stands erect, and is often shed w 7 ith the scab which 
results. When itching is severe the parts become excoriated by 
rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin disease, the character of 
the eruption may become indistinct. Old horses sutler mainly at the 
root of the mane and tail and about the heels, and suckling foals 
around the mouth, on the face, inside the thighs, and under the tail. 

Pustules like eczema are especially liable to result from unwhole- 
some food and indigestion, from a sudden change of food — above all, 



BOILS, OK FURUNCLES. 439 

from dry to green food. In foals it may result from overheating of 
the mare and allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk 
rendered unwholesome by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is 
brought up by hand the souring and other decompositions in the milk 
derange the digestion and cause such eruption. Vetches and other 
plants affected with honeydew and buckwheat have been the cause of 
these eruptions on white portions of the skin. Disorders of the 
kidneys or liver are common causes of this affection. 

Treatment. — Apply soothing ointments, such as benzonated oxide 
of zinc, or vaseline with 1 dram oxide of zinc in each ounce. Or a 
wash of 1 dram sugar of lead or 2 drams hyposulphite of soda in a 
quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded 
and scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash 
with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoriations 
are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic, 2 
grains to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costive- 
ness and remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in eczema, 
and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of 
soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may 
often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or 
arsenic. In all, the greatest care must be taken with regard to food, 
feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold seasons 
predisposed animals should, so far as possible, be protected from 
wet, mud, snow, and melted snow — above all, from that which has 
been melted by salt. 

BOILS, OR FURUNCLES. 

These may appear on any part of the skin, but are especially com- 
mon on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back 
where the skin is irritated by accumulated secretion and chafing with 
the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended 
by unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and 
condition. They also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles, 
in which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of 
poisons and effete matters during fever, and imperfect elimination. 
There is also the presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the 
disease may be maintained and propagated. 

While boils are pus-producing, they differ from simple pustule in 
affecting the deepest layers of the true skin, and even the superficial 
layers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and slough- 
ing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth 
of the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this 
central mass or core, which is bathed in pus and slowly separated 
from surrounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the 
pustule, from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess. 



440 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — To treat very painful boils a free incision with a 
lancet in two directions, followed by a dressing with one-half an 
ounce carbolic acid in a pint of water, bound on with cotton wool or 
lint, may cut them short. The more common course is to apply a 
warm poultice of linseed meal or wheat bran, and renew daily until 
the center of the boil softens, when it should be lanced and the core 
pressed out. 

If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies 
and a poultice put over it, the formation of matter and separation of 
the core is often hastened. A mixture of sugar and soap laid on the 
boil is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all 
causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicar- 
bonate of soda once or twice a day will sometimes assist in warding 
off a new crop. 

NETTLERASH ( SURFEIT, OR URTICARIA). 

This is an eruption m the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from 
a hazelnut to a hickory nut. transient, with little disposition to the 
formation of either blister or pustule, and usually connected with 
shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesome- 
ness or sudden change in the food. It is most frequent in the spring 
and in young and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling 
embraces the entire thickness of the skin and terminates by an 
abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When 
the individual swellings run together there are formed extensive 
patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any part of 
the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips 
rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing 
becomes difficult and snuffling. It may be attended b}' constipation 
or diarrhea or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole 
skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear 
with equal rapidity or persist for six or eight days. 

Treatment. — This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drams 
Barbados aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salts, and follow the operation 
of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1 
ounce Glauber's salts. A weak solution of alum may be applied to 
the swellings. 

SCALY SKIN DISEASE, OR PITYUTASIS. 

This affection is characterized by an excessive production and 
detachment of dry scales from the surface of the skin (dandruff). It 
is usually dependent on some fault in digestion and an imperfect 
secretion from the sebaceous glands, and is most common in old horses 
with spare habit of body. Williams attributes it to food rich in sac- 



ERUPTIONS OF THE SKIN. 441 

charine matter (carrots, turnips) and to the excretion by the skin 
of oxalic acid. He has found it in horses irregularly worked and well 
fed, and advises the administration of pitch for a length of time, and 
the avoidance of saccharine food. Otherwise the horse may take a 
laxative followed by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the 
affected parts may be bathed with soft tepid water and smeared 
with an ointment made with vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate 
cases sulphur may be given daily in the food. 

NERVOtJS IRRITATION OF THE SKIN, OR PRURITUS. 

This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close 
stables, and worked irregularly. Though most common in summer, 
it is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles, 
and abrasions may result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other 
parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching merely. It is 
especially common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and tail; 

Treatment consists in a purgative (Glauber's salts, 1 pound), re- 
stricted, laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of 
vitriol and rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give daily 1 
ounce of sulphur and 20 grains nux vomica. If the acid lotion 
fails, 2 drains carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanide of potas- 
sium in a quart of water will sometimes benefit. If due to pinworms 
in the rectum, the itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional 
injection of a quart of water in which chips of quassia wood have been 
steeped for twelve hours. 

HERPES. 

This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an erup- 
tion of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little 
tendency to burst, but rather to dry up into fine scabs. If the vesicles 
break they exude a slight gummy discharge which concretes into a 
small, hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably 
connected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accom- 
panies or follows specific fevers, and is, on the whole, most frequent 
at the seasons of changing the coat — spring and autumn. It is seen 
on the lips and pastern, but may appear on any part of the body. The 
duration of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency 
being to spontaneous recovery. The affected part is very irritable, 
causing a sensitiveness and a disposition to rub out of proportion to 
the extent of the eruption. 

Treatment. — It may be treated by oxide of zinc ointment, and to 
relieve the irritation a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of 
sugar of lead or oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an 
ounce Peruvian bark daily for a week) may be serviceable in brac- 
ing the system and producing an indisposition to the eruption. 



442 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

BLEEDING SKIN ERUPTIONS, OR DERMATORRHAGIA PARASITICA. 

Iii China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently 
Miller from the presence of a threadworm (Filaria hcemorrhagica^ 
liailliet: F. multipapillosa, Condamine and Proudly) in the subcuta- 
neous connective tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf 
skin and incrustations of dried blood on the surface. The eruptions, 
which appear mainly on the sides of the trunk, but may cover any 
part of the body, arc rounded elevations about the size of a small pea, 
containing blood which bursts through the scurf skin and concretes 
like a reddish scab around the erect, rigid hairs. These swellings 
appear in groups, which remain out for several days, gradually 
diminishing in size; new groups appear after an interval of three or 
four Aveeks, the manifestation being confined to three or four months 
of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse will suffer for several 
years in succession, and then permanently recover. A fatal issue is 
not unknown. To find the worm the hair is shaved from the part 
where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a bleeding point is shown 
the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, when the parasite 
will be seen drawing itself back into the parts beneath. The worm is 
about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker toward the head 
than toward the tail, and with numerous little conical elevations 
(papilla 1 ) around the head. The young worms are numerous in the 
body of the adult female worm. The worm has become common in 
given localities, and probably enters the system with food or water. 

Treatment is not satisfactory, but the affected surface should be 
kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of harness on any affected 
part must be avoided. Thus rest may become essential. The part 
may be frequently washed with a strong solution of sulphide of 
potassium. 

SUMMER SORES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS. 

The summer sores of horses (Dermatitis granulosa, boils) have 
been traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 milli- 
meters in length and extremely attenuated (Filaria irritaits Railliet). 
The sores may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently 
the size of a pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may 
appear on any point, but are especially obnoxious where the harness 
presses or on the lower parts of the limbs. They cause intense and 
insupportable itching, and the victim rubs and bites the part until 
extensive raw sin faces are produced. Aside from such friction the 
sore is covered by a brownish-red, soft, pulpy material with cracks 
or furrows filled with serous pus. In the midst of the softened mass 
are small, firm, rounded granulations, fibrinous, and even caseated, 
and when the soft pultaeeous material has been scraped off, the sur- 
face bears a resemblance to the fine yellow points of miliary tubercu- 



CRACKED HEELS. 443 

losis in the lung. The worm or its debris is found in the center of 
such masses. These sores are very obstinate, resisting treatment for 
months in summer, and even after apparent recovery during the 
cold season they may appear anew the following summer. In bad 
cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial sacs and 
tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, however, 
when the diseased process seems arrested, there remain the hard, 
firm, resistant patches of the skin with points in which the diseased 
product has become softened like cheese. 

The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the 
coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in sum- 
mer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell growth, 
inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rub- 
bing the part the irritation is persistently increased. The hotter the 
climate the more troublesome the disease. 

The life history of the parasite is unknown, but it probably enters 
the system with the food or water. 

Treatment consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and 
showering the surface with cold water. The parasite may be de- 
stroyed by rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform and 
covering it with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications 
every twenty-four hours for fifteen days, or until the sores heal up. 
Ether or chloroform may be used in place of iodoform, being poured 
on cotton wool and applied to the sore for two minutes before paint- 
ing it with collodion. 

CRACKED HEELS (SCRATCHES, OR CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCK). 

This usually sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hol- 
low of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white 
skins), with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable 
horses. Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and may gain in 
depth and width, and may even suppurate. More frequently they 
become covered at the edges or throughout by firm incrustations re- 
sulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out, and the skin be- 
comes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs 
behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and salanders), 
and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that 
side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. 

Causes. — Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes 
to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, unwholesome 
fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with dung and urine 
and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in 
limestone districts, irritation by dry limestone or sandy dust in dry 
weather on dirt roads; also cold drafts, snow and freezing mud, 
washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick 



444 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when 
exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, 
natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure 
air, lack of sunshine, chronic exhausting, or debilitating diseases, 
or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys. 
These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken 
the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexist- 
ing crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to reopen under any 
severe exertion, hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes. 
Treatment. — In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove 
the cause whenever possible. If there is much local heat and inflam- 
mation, a laxative (5 drams aloes or 1 pound Glauber's salts) may be 
given, and for the pampered animal the grain should be reduced or 
replaced altogether by bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, non- 
stimulating food. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious 
food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5 
grains arsenic with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda daily). When the 
legs sw T ell, exercise on dry roads, hand rubbing, and evenly applied 
bandages are good, and mild astringents, like extract of witch-hazel, 
may be applied and the part subsequently rubbed dry and bandaged. 
If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar 
of lead to 1 quart of water may be applied on a thin bandage, covered 
in cold weather with a dry one. The same may be used after the 
cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid 1 part, glycerin 1 part, 
and water 1 part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. 
In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part 
may be smeared with vaseline 1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and 
carbolic acid 10 drops. 

inflammation of the heels with sebaceous secretion ( grease, or 

canker). 

This is a specific affection of the heels of horses usually associated 
with the growth of a parasitic fungus, an offensive discharge from the 
numerous sebaceous glands, and, in bad cases, the formation of red, 
iaw excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is to be distinguished 
(1) from simple inflammation in which the special fetid discharge 
and the tendency to the formation of " grapes " are absent : ( •_! ) from 
horsepox, in which the abundant exudate forms a linn yellow in- 
crustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at intervals 
in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there is no 
vascular excrescence; (3) from foot scabies (mange), in which the 
presence of an acarus is distinctive; (4) from lymphangitis, in which 
the swelling appears suddenly extending around the entire limb as 
high a- the hock, and on the inner side of the thigh along the line of 
the vein to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) from 



GREASE, OR CANKER. 445 

erysipelas, in which there is active fever (wanting in grease), the 
implication of the deeper layers of the skin and of the parts beneath 
giving a boggy feeling to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy 
discharge, and finally a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues 
without any limiting membrane, as in abscess. Another distinctive 
feature of grease is its tendency to implicate the skin which secretes 
the bulbs or heels of the horny frog and in the cleft of the frog, con- 
stituting the disease known as canker. 

Causes. — The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same 
as those of simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may 
consult the preceding article, and though a specific fungus and bac- 
teria of different kinds are present, they tend mainly to aggravation 
of the disease, and are not proved to be essential factors in causation. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to whether the disease 
comes on suddenly or more tardily. In the first case there is a sudden 
swelling of the skin in the heel, with heat, tenderness, itching, and 
stiffness, which is lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there 
is only seen a slight swelling after rest, and with little. heat or inflam- 
mation for a week or more. Even at this early stage a slight serous 
oozing may be detected. As the swelling increases, extending up 
toward the hock or knees, the hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by 
moisture no longer clear and odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid. 
The fetor of the discharge draws attention to the part whenever one 
enters the stable, and the swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on 
the heel draw attention to the precise seat of the malady. If actively 
treated, the disease may not advance further, but if neglected the 
tense, tender skin cracks open, leaving open sores from which vascular 
bleeding growths grow up, constituting the " grapes." The hair is 
shed, and the heel may appear but as one mass of rounded, red, angry 
excrescences which bleed on handling and are covered with the now 
repulsively fetid decomposing discharge. During this time there is 
little or no fever, the animal feeds well, and but for its local trouble it 
might continue at work. When the malady extends to the frog, there 
is a fetid discharge from its cleft or from the depressions at its sides, 
and this gradually extends to its whole surface and upon the adjacent 
parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile becomes soft, whitish, and 
fleshy in aspect, its constituent tubes being greatly enlarged and 
losing their natural cohesion ; it grows rapidly above the level of the 
surrounding horn, and when pared is found to be penetrated to an 
unusual depth by the secreting papillae, and that at intervals these 
have bulged out into a vascular fungous mass comparable to the 
" grapes." 

Treatment. — In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank, 
but are in themselves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and 
general conditions which favor the production and persistence of the 



446 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

disease must be guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity 
of the stable and air must he secured; also nourishing diet, regular 
exercise, and the avoidance of local irritants^septic, muddy, chilling, 
etc At the outset benzoated oxide of zinc ointment may he used with 
advantage. A still better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2 
drams oxide of zinc, and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is 
much swollen and tender, a flaxseed poultice may he applied over the 
surface of which has been poured some of the following lotion : Sugar 
of lead, one-half ounce; carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All 
the astringents of the pharmacopoeia have been employed with more 
or less advantage, and some particular one seems to suit particular 
cases or patients. To destroy the grapes, they may be rubbed daily 
with strong caustics (copperas, bluest one, lunar caustic), or each may 
be tied round its neck by a stout waxed thread, or, finally and more 
speedily, they may be cut off by a blacksmith's shovel heated to red- 
ness and applied with its sharp edge toward the neck of the excres- 
cence, over a cold shovel held between it and the skin to protect the 
>kin from the heat. The cold shovel must be kept cool by frequent 
dipping in water. After the removal of the grapes the astringent 
dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. When the frog- 
is affected, it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry caustic 
powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone) or carbolic acid and sub- 
jected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every day at least. 

ERYSIPELAS. 

This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading 
dropsical inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended 
by general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence 
of a definite period of incubation, a regular course and duration, and 
n conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the con- 
trary, one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubt- 
less, by the loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also. 
perhaps, because of the survival of the infecting germ. 

Cause. — It is no longer to be doubted that the microbes found in the 
inflammatory product are the true cause of erysipelas, as the disease 
c;iu be successfully transferred from man to animals and from one 
animal to another by their means. This transition may be direct or 
through the medium of infected buildings or other articles. Yet from 
the varying severity of erysipelas in different outbreaks and localities 
it has been surmised that various different microbes are operative in 
this disease, and a perfect knowledge of these might perhaps enable us 
to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct affections. At present 
we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due to a bacterial 
poison and closely allied to septicemia. Erysipelas was formerly 



ERYSIPELAS. 447 

known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which the 
germ had gained access) and medical, or idiopathic, when it started 
independently of any recognizable lesion. Depending as it does, how- 
ever, upon a germ distinct from the body, the disease must be looked 
upon as such, no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance. 
Erysipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than 
the other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the 
lowered vitality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and 
septic changes which are invited on the raw, exposed surface. As 
apparently idiopathic cases may be due to infection through bites of 
insects, the small amount of poison inserted may serve to moderate 
the violence. 

This affection may attack a wound on any part of the horse's body, 
while apart from wounds it is most frequent about the head and the 
hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary inflammations 
by its gradual extension from the point first attacked, by the abun- 
dant liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the skin 
over the affected part, by its soft boggy feeling, allowing it to be 
deeply indented by the finger, by the abrupt line of limitation between 
the diseased and healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the 
healthy level instead of shading off slowly toward it, by the tendency 
of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues and 
into the muscles and other structures, by the great tendency to death 
and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, by 
the formation of pus at various different points throughout the 
diseased parts without any surrounding sac to protect the surround- 
ing structures from its destructive action, and without the usual dis- 
position of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape ; 
and, finally, by a low prostrating type of fever, with elevated tem- 
perature of the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of 
appetite. The pus when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish, 
brownish, or reddish, with a heavy or fetid odor, and intermixed with 
shreds of broken-down tissues. The most destructive form, however, 
is that in which pus is deficient and gangrene and sloughing more 
speedy and extensive. 

Treatment resolves itself mainly into the elimination from the 
system of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and 
diuretics, the sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimu- 
lants, above all those of the nature of anti ferments, and the local 
application of astringent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment 
may consist in 4 drams tincture of muriate of iron and one-half dram 
muriate of ammonia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water 
every two hours. To this may be added, liberally, whisky or brandy 
when the prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of 
iron, alum, or of sulphate of iron and laudanum may be used ; or the 



448 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

affected part may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with 
iodized phenol. In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and 

2 ounces laudanum in a quart of water may be applied. It i< desir- 
able to avoid the formation of wounds and the consequent septic 
action, yet when pus has formed and is felt by fluctuation under the 
finger to be approaching: the surface it should be freely opened with 
a clean, sharp lancet, and the wound thereafter disinfected daily with 
carbolic acid 1 part to water 10 parts, with a saturated solution of 
hyposulphite of soda, or with powders of iodoform or salol. 

HORSEPOX, ANTHRAX, AND CUTANEOUS GLANDERS (FARCY). 

These subjects will come more properh under the head of conta- 
gious diseases. 

( ALLOSITIE8. 

These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason 
of continued pressure, notably in lying down on a hard surface. Be- 
ing devoid of hair, they cause blemishes; hence smooth floors and 
good bedding should be secured as preventives. 

HORNY SLOUGHS ( SITFASTS ) , OR SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES. 

These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the 
result of pressure by badly fitting harness or by irritating masses of 
dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common 
under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. 
The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but 
that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or 
even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with 
the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of* irri- 
tation. The hornlike slough may thus involve the superficial part of 
the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of 
the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irri- 
tant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may 
be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic-acid lotion, like a 
common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a 
linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the opera- 
tor. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous, the dead portion 
must be removed with the hornlike skin. During and after treat- 
ment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted 
that no pressure can come near the affected parts. (See also page 
470.) 

WARTS. 

These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papil- 
lary layer of the skin and of the investing euticular layer. They are 



PLATE XXXVI 






m t 








Stwcoptes scabiev, \'cu:EqwL. 



ntorioptes spathiferus 



\JF 



m !R5 - 




'? 











If 









Psoroptes longirostris , var.EqitL. 



Dernuuwssus qaUinae . 



Haines, del afb i 



JULIUS BIEN &. CO. NY 



MITES THAT INFEST THE HORSE 



PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 449 

mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears, 
beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. 
The smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface 
cauterized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp 
knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cau- 
terized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a wax thread or 
cord tied around their necks, at least three turns being made round 
and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding 
turn of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they 
slacken by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be 
transfixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be 
tied in sections. Very broad Avarts that can not be treated in this way 
may be burned down to beneath the surface of the skin with a solder- 
ing bolt at a red heat, and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth 
kept down by bluestone. 

BLACK PIGMENT TUMORS, OR MELANOSIS. 

These are common in gray and in white horses on the naturally 
black parts of the skin at the root of the tail, around the anus, vulva, 
udder, sheath, eyelids, and lips. They are readily recognized by their 
inky-black color, which extends throughout the whole mass. They 
may appear as simple pealike masses, or as multiple tumors aggre- 
gating many pounds, especially around the tail. In the horse these 
are usually simple tumors, and may be removed with the knife. In 
exceptional cases they prove cancerous, as they usually are in man. 

EPITHELIAL CANCER, OR EPITHELIOMA. 

This sometimes occurs on the lips at the angle of the mouth and 
elsewhere in the horse. It begins as a small wartlike tumor, which 
grows slowly at first, but finally bursts open, ulcerates, and extends 
laterally and deeply in the skin and other tissues, destroying them as 
it advances (rodent ulcer). It is made up of a fibrous framework and 
numerous round, ovoid, or cylindrical cavities, lined with masses of 
epithelial cells, which may be squeezed out as a fetid caseous material. 
The most successful treatment is early and thorough removal with the 
knife. 

VEGETABLE PARASITES OE THE SKIN. 

Parasite: Trichophyton tonsurans. Malady: Tinea tonsurans, or 
Circinate ringworm. — This is especially common in young horses 
coming into training and work, in low-conditioned colts in winter and 
spring after confinement indoors and during molting, in lymphatic 
rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in several animals 
that have herded together. The disease is common to man, and 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 29 



450 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

among the domestic animals to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and in rare 
instances to sheep and swine. Hence it is common to find animals of 
different species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases 
having been propagated from one to the other. 

/Symptoms. — In the horse the symptoms are the formation of a cir- 
cular scurfy patch where the fungus has established itself, the hairs of 
the affected spot being erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or split up and 
dropping off. Later the spot iirst affected has become entirely bald, 
and a circular row of hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken, and 
split. These in turn are shed and a new row outside passes through 
the same process, so that the extension is made in more or less circular 
outline. The central bald spot, covered with a grayish scurf and sur- 
rounded by a circle of broken and split hairs, is characteristic. If the 
scurf and diseased hairs are treated with caustic potash solution and 
put under the microscope the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will 
be seen to have become transparent, while the groups of spherical cells 
and branching filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the 
substance of both, dark and unchanged. The eruption usually appears 
on the back, loins, croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous 
recovery in a month or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from 
the spots of short, light-colored hair of the new growth. 

The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles 
is to extract the hairs individually, but in the horse the mere shaving 
of the affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with 
tincture of iodine twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable 
may be covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned 
quicklime, the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic 
soda, and then smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate one-half 
dram and water 1 pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried. 

Parasite: Achorion schonleini. Malady: Funis, or Honeycomb 
/■//if/worm. — Megnin and Goyau, who describe this in the horse, say 
that it loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped appearance, 
and forms only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellowish crusts 
the size of hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or thighs. 
They are accompanied by severe itching, especially at night. The 
cryptogam, formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only. 
grows in the hair follicles and on the cuticle, and thus a crust often 
forms around the root of a hair. Like the other cryptogams, their 
color, as seen under the microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid, 
alcohol, ether, or oil of turpentine, while the cells are turned bluish 
by iodine. For treatment, remove the hair and apply tincture of 
iodine or corrosive sublimate lotion, as advised under the last para- 
graph. 

Parasite: Microsporon furfur. Malady: Parasitic pityriasis. — 
This attacks the horse's head where the harness presses, and leads to 



PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 451 

dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a branlike 
scurf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity of 
the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid 1 dram and water 2^ ounces is 
usually applied to effect a cure. 

ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 

Acariasis, or mange. — This affection is due to the irritation of the 
skin caused by the presence of nearly microscopic acarus, or mite. 
The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which 
infests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of 
acariasis. 

Parasite : Sarcoptes scabiei equi. Malady : Sarcoptic acariasis. — 
This is the special Sarcoptes of the horse, but under favorable condi- 
tions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may 
live indefinitely on the human skin. The mite is nearly microscop- 
ical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among moving 
scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all Sarcoptes, it burrows 
little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays 
its eggs and where its young are hatched. It is therefore often 
difficult to find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been 
heated by a temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. Even 
then it may be needful to tie the scab on the human arm till a 
pricking is felt, when the acarus will be found in the center of a 
minute papule caused by its bite. Like other acari, this is wonder- 
fully prolific, a new generation of fifteen individuals being possible 
every fifteen days, so that in three months the offspring of a single 
pair may produce generations aggregating 1,500,000 young. The 
Sarcoptes have less vitality than the nonburrowing acari, as they 
die in an hour when kept apart from the skin in dry air at a heat of 
145° F. They live twelve to fourteen days apart from the skin in 
the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived till 
the twenty-fourth day, when they began to die, and all were dead 
on the twenty-eighth. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and in- 
creasing itching of some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, 
etc.), the horse inclining himself toward the hand that scratches 
him, and moving his lips as if himself scratching. The hairs may be 
broken and rubbed off, but the part is never entirely bald, as in ring- 
worm, and there may be papules or any kind of eruption or open 
sores from the energy of the scratching. Scabs of any thickness 
may form, but the special features are the intense itching and the 
discovery of the acarus. 

Treatment consists in the removal of the scabs by soapsuds, and, if 
necessary, a brush and the thorough application of tobacco 1^ ounces 
and water 2 pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied more 



452 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

than once, and should always be repeated after fifteen days, to destroy 
the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All har- 
ness and stable utensils should be similarly treated; blankets and 
rubbers may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered with a white- 
wash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chloride of lime 
to the gallon. 

Parasite: Sarcoptes mutans. Malady: s<ir<o/>fi<- acariasis of 
fowls. — This parasite belongs to chickens, but can live on the skin of 
the fox and horse as well. A troublesome mange may therefore at 
times be traceable to the proximity of a chicken roost. The general 
symptoms and treatment are essentially the same as for Sarcoptes 
scabiei equi. 

Parasite: Psoroptes equi (Dermatocoptes equi, Demiatode< t( s 
equi). Malady: Psoroptic acariasis. — This produces the most fre- 
quent mange in horses, and as the parasite only bites the surface and 
lives among the crusts under the shelter of the hair, it is very easily 
discovered. It reproduces itself with equal rapidity and causes simi- 
lar symptoms to those produced by the Sarcoptes. The same treat- 
ment will suffice and is more promptly effectual. The purifying of 
the stable must be more thorough, as the Psoroptes will survive 
twenty to thirty days in the moist atmosphere of a stable, and may 
even revive after six or eight weeks when subjected to moist warmth. 
Infested pastures will therefore prove dangerous to horses for that 
length of time. and. with rubbing posts, etc.. should not be used. 

Parasite: Chorioptes bovis (Symbiotes equi, Demnatophagus <<juK 
Chorioptes spathiferus) . Malady: Foot mange. — This acarus at- 
tacks the heels and lower parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, 
and may be present for years without extending upon the body. 
Like the Psoroptes, it lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among 
the scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing of the 
one leg with the other, and the formation of papules, wounds, ulcerous 
sores, and scabs. The intense itching will always suggest this para- 
site, and the discovery of the acarus will identify the disease. The 
treatment is the same as for the Sarcoptes, but may be confined to the 
legs and the parts with which they come in contact. 

Parasite: Dermanyssus gallince, <>r chicken <i<<iri. Malady: Poul- 
try acariasis. — This is a large-sized acarus, though usually miscalled 
"hen louse." and the disease " poultry -lousiness." The mite lives in 
the hen manure and adjacent woodwork, but temporarily passes on 
to the skin of man and of the horse and other quadrupeds, when 
occasion serves. It causes much irritation, with the eruption of 
papules or vesicles and the formation of sores and scabs. The ex- 
amination of the skin is usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly 
made at night and the effects only may be seen during the day. 
The proximity of hen manure swarming with the acari explains the 



PARASITES OF THE SKIN. 453 

trouble, and the removal of this and a whitewashing with quicklime, 
with or without chloride of lime, will prevent future attacks. The 
skin may still require bland ointments or lotions, as for congestion. 

Parasite: Larva of a Trombidium, Leptus americanus, or harvest 
bug, misnamed jigger {chigoe). Malady: Autumn mange. — This 
parasite is a brick-red acarus, visible to the naked eye on a dark 
ground, and living on green vegetation in many localities. It attacks 
man, and the horse, ox, dog, etc., burrowing under the skin and giving 
rise to small papules and intolerable irritation. This continues for 
two or three days only if no fresh acari are received, but will last 
until cold weather sets in if a fresh colony is received every day. 
Horses at pasture suffer mainly on the lower part of the face. If 
kept indoors the disease will disappear, or if left at pasture a weak 
tar-water or solution of tobacco may be applied to the face. 

Parasites : Gamarus pteroptoides and Cheyletus live in musty fod- 
ders and are found on the horse. 

TICKS. 

The wood ticks are familiar to inhabitants of uncultivated lands, 
and prove troublesome parasites to man and beast alike. The tick 
lives on bushes, and attaches itself to the mammal only to secure 
a feast of blood, for when gorged it drops off to sleep off its debauch 
on the soil. The tick produces great irritation by boring into the 
skin with its armed proboscis. If pulled out, the head and thorax 
are often left in the skin. They may be covered with oil to shut 
out the air from their breathing pores, or by touching them with 
a hot penknife they will be impelled to let go their hold. 

GRUBS IN SKIN. 

Parasite: Hypoderma lineata. Malady: Larva? {grubs) under 
the skin. — The larva? of a fly (probably Hypoderma lineata, whose 
larva? in the skin of cattle are commonly known as " warbles ") are 
occasionally found in little sacs beneath the skin of horses. The 
mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In 
districts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin 
in the course of the winter and destroyed. 

LARVJE (GRUBS) ON THE SKIN, OR FLYBLOW. 

The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores 
or on wet, filthy parts of the skin, where their larva? or grubs give 
rise to serious trouble: Lucilia cmsar (bluebottle), Lucilia homini- 
vorax (screwworm fly), Musca vomitoria (meat fly), and Sarcophaga 
carnaria (flesh fly). To prevent their attacks, wet, filthy hair should 
be removed and wounds kept clean and rendered antiseptic by a 
lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 50 parts, or by a mixture of 1 



454 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ounce oil of tar in 20 ounces sweel oil, or by some other antiseptic. 
If the grubs are already present they should l>e picked off and one 
of these dressings freely applied. 

FLIES 

A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, producing 
great annoyance, and in some instances death. These insects not only 
suck the blood, but also often ins' ill an acid poison into the skin, and 
in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal 
by inoculation. 

Various devices are resorted to to prevent the attacks, as to sponge 
the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust 
with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly net on the 
horse, to close doors and windows* with fine screens and destroy by 
pyrethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure 
heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls 
clean, deodorize by gypsum, and to spread in them trays of dry chlo- 
ride of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of 
1 part of carbolic acid in 20 parts of sweet oil or glycerin, or one- 
fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram of carbolic acid in a 
quart of water may be used. 

STINGS or BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS. 

These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly be- 
cause the barbed sting is left in the wound, and partly because of the 
amount and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal 
the result may prove fatal. 

Treatment consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of 
soda or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or permanganate of potash, 2 
grains to the ounce, or of sugar of lead 2 drams, laudanum 1 ounce. 
and water 1 pint. The embedded stings should be extracted with fine 
forceps or even with the finger nails. 

FLEA, OK PULEX. 

The flea of man and those of the dog and cat, when numerous, will 
bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dis- 
pose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grublike 
larva 1 as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with 
quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar, or petroleum; the stalls may be 
deluged with boiling water and afterwards painted with oil of tur- 
pentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should 
be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of 1 part carbolic 
acid in 50 parts of water. Dogs, cats, and pigs should be dressed 
with the same lotion, or, better, removed from the vicinity of the 
stable. 



DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 455 

The chigoe (Pulex penetrans) of the Gulf coast is still more injuri- 
ous, because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be 
hatched out slowly with much irritation. The tumor formed by it 
should be laid open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that 
its eggs escape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introduc- 
ing a wire at a red heat. 

LICE, OR PEDICULI. 

Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of which is furnished with 
narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the skin and sucking the 
blood, and the other — the broad-headed kind — with strong mandibles, 
by which it bites the skin only. Of the bloodsuckers, one is common 
to horse and ass and another to horse and ox, while of the nonsucking 
lice one species attacks horse and ox and a second ox and ass. The 
poor condition, itching, and loss of hair should lead to suspicion, and 
a close examination will detect the lice. They may be destroyed by 
rubbing the victim with sulphur ointment, or with sulphuret of potas- 
sium 4 ounces, water 1 gallon, or with tar water, or the skin may be 
sponged with benzine. The application should be repeated a week 
later to destroy all lice hatched from the nits in the interval. Build- 
ings, clothes, etc., should be treated as for fleas. 

TARANTULA AND SCORPION. 

The bite of the first and the sting of the second are poisonous, and 
may be treated like other insect venom, by carbolated glycerin, or a 
strong solution of ammonia, or permanganate of potash. 

SNAKE BITES. 

These are marked by the double incision caused by the two fangs, 
by the excessive doughy (dark red) swelling around the wounds, and 
in bad cases by the general symptoms of giddiness, weakness, and 
prostration. They are best treated by enormous doses of alcohol, 
whisky, or brandy, or by aqua ammonia very largely diluted in water, 
the object being to sustain life until the poison shall have spent its 
power. As local treatment, if the wound is in a limb, the latter may 
have a handkerchief or cord tied around it above the injury and 
drawn tight by a stick twisted into it. In this way absorption may be 
checked until the poison can be destroyed by the application of a hot 
iron or a piece of nitrate of silver or other caustic. A poultice of 
tobacco leaves is a favorite remedy, and may be used to soothe the 
sore after cauterization. 

BURNS AND SCALDS. 

For scalds the surface may be bathed with a solution of bicarbonate 
of soda, sweetened or not by carbolic acid, or a weak solution of sugar 



456 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of load may be used ; or the surface may be dusted thickly with Starch 
or flour and covered with the cotton wool, or oil of turpentine may be 
applied over the scalded skin. Burns are well treated by Liniment 
made of equal parts of lime water and linseed oil (Oirron oil). 
For both kinds of injuries cosmoline 10 parts, and carbolic acid 1 
part, proves an excellent dressing. Blisters should be pricked with 
a needle and emptied to prevent their rupture and exposures of tie- 
raw surface. 

Severe burns, leading to destruction of very extensive patches of 
skin, usually render a horse useless by reason of the contraction of the 
resulting scar. Hence the treatment of such is rarely advisable, unless 
followed by a skillful plastic operation. In other cases a skillful 
transplanting of epidermis, shaved from a healthy surface with a 
sharp razor, will secure the healing of a granulating wound which 
has proved obstinate to all other measures. In cases of burns with 
mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric) avoid water, as that 
will develop heat, and cover the surface with dry whiting or chalk, 
and only when effervescence has ceased wash off with water. When 
the caustic has been a salt (copperas, bluestone, chloride of zinc, etc.) 
apply limewater or white of egg. If the irritant has been caustic 
potash, soda, or ammonia, vinegar should be the first application. If 
sores result they may be treated like ordinary wounds. 

worxns OF THE SK1X. 

These are divided into incised (clean cut) wounds, lacerated (/<<//<) 
wounds, and contused (bruised) and punctured wounds. 

l/xised wounds are the simplest, and the sharper the instrument 
and the cleaner the cut the greater the hope of speedy healing. 
Something, however, depends on the seat and direction of the wound; 
thus, one running from before backward on the body, or from above 
downward in the limb, will not tend to be drawn open and gape as 
would one running transversely on the body or limb. Again, a wound 
on a joint and running across the limb will gape when the joint is 
bent. Again, a clean-cut wound which has not been exposed to the 
air, and which lodges no foreign body and no septic nor infecting 
germ, will heal readily by simple adhesion, whereas those that have 
been exposed and contain matter foreign to the tissues will have 
healing delayed or prevented by the disturbing action of such bodies. 

Healing in wounds may be said to take place by those modes: 

(1) By primary adhesion, in which case the spherical (embryonic) 
cells, and the stellate connective tissue cells thrown out on the surface 
of the wound rapidly multiply and form a bond of union between 
the divided lips. Union by this means may be effected within 



WOUNDS OP THE SKIN. 457 

twenty-four hours after the wound has been inflicted. Of all do- 
mestic animals, however, the horse is the least prone to such union, 
being more disposed to the formation of pus. 

(2) By granulation, which is the common form of healing in raw, 
exposed sores, in those containing foreign bodies and septic and in- 
fecting ferments; also in torn and contused wounds. In this form 
the wound becomes covered with a layer of embryonic cells, of which 
the superficial ones degenerate into pus cells, and thus the surface is 
kept moist by a layer of whitish, creamy pus. In the deeper layer of 
cells minute loops of capillary blood vessels start up, causing the small 
rounded elevations known as granulations. In this way the deeper 
layer of cells receiving a blood supply is transformed into connective 
tissue, and from its surface new loops of blood vessels start into the 
layer above, and thus layer after layer of new tissue is formed, and 
the breach caused by the wound is gradually filled up. The new tis- 
sue as formed undergoes a steady contraction, drawing in the ad- 
jacent skin over the w T ound, and hence large wounds healed in this 
way have the skin more or less puckered around them. 

(3) By secondary adhesion, in which, two granulating lips of a 
wound having been brought together and kept in apposition, union 
takes place through the medium of the cells, as in primary adhesion. 

(4) By scabbing, in which the exudation on the surface of the 
wound dries up into a firm scab, under which the process of repair 
goes on by the development of tissue from the deeper cells, as in ad- 
hesion. 

Treatment. — In treating clean, incised wounds, attempts should be 
made to secure healing by primary adhesion, even in the horse. 
Bleeding should first be arrested, or nearly so, by applying a cold 
or hot sponge, or by tying bleeding vessels, and the lips of the wound 
should then be closed accurately, without any twisting or overlap- 
ping. In small wounds pieces of sticking plaster may be used, the 
lips of the wound having first been smoothly shaved, so that they 
may adhere firmly. In larger wounds the wound may be sewed with 
a curved surgical needle and a silk thread dipped in a solution of 
carbolic acid. The stitches may be continued from end to end of 
the wound and the thread prevented from slipping and loosening 
by a knot at each end ; or the stitches may be independent, the two 
ends being tied together across the wound. In such cases they may 
be one-quarter to one-third inch apart ; or the lips of the wound may 
be pinned together, the pins in a simple skin wound being inserted 
one-eighth inch from the edge, and when both lips have been trans- 
fixed in this way a thread (or hair) carried successively around the 
two ends of the pin and made to describe a figure 8 will hold the 
wound close. When the stitching is not continuous from end to end 



458 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 

of the wound the apposition of the edges will be rendered more per- 
fect by the application of strips of sticking plaster in the intervals. 

When efforts at primary union have failed and pus has formed, or 
fermentative changes have occurred on the raw surfaces and the lips 
gape more or less, some antiseptic dressing will be required, as in the 
case of lacerated and contused wounds. 

In cases where an incised wound has had foreign bodies or septic 
ferments introduced into it these should first be remove* 1. A current 
of water that has been boiled and cooled is one of the best methods of 
cleansing a wound, and there is no objection to the addition of one- 
twentieth of its amount of carbolic acid, as this will tend to destroy 
any germ life that might otherwise prove fatal to the healing process. 
Then the wound may be stitched up as if it had been clean, and a 
daily dressing of carbolic acid 1 part and sweet oil 10 parts may be 
applied. 

For a wound on the convex surface of a joint, where stitches are 
not sufficient to keep the lips accurately applied to each other, the 
movement of the joint may be temporarily abolished by the applica- 
tion of a splint and bandage, and in any such case the bandage should 
be applied uniformly from the hoof upward, as otherwise the limb 
below the bandage is liable to swell or even die. 

The treatment of contused, punctured, and lacerated wounds de- 
mands cleansing and antiseptic applications as for an incised wound, 
but as primary adhesion is next to impossible, the same accurate appo- 
sition of the lips by stitching is not so essential. If portions of skin 
or other tissue are so detached or crushed that they can not possibly 
live, they may be cut off, but if there is any doubt on this matter the 
injured portion should be left and every attempt should be made to 
preserve it. Such portions of the wound as are free from such fatally 
injured parts may be disinfected by the carbolic lotion referred to 
above and stitched up like a clean wound. The severely injured parts 
may be left open to discharge, and the whole may be dressed daily 
with the carbolized oil or with a solution of 1 part of mercuric chlo- 
ride in 1,000 of water. 

Granulating wounds may be irrigated with the mercuric chloride 
solution, and if the granulations become inflamed (soft, flabby, exu- 
berant, rising above the edges of the wound), they may be touched 
lightly with a stick of lunar caustic, so as to leave them covered with 
a white film. 

In all wounds that fail to heal by primary union an elaborate anti- 
septic treatment is desirable, but the difficulty of applying this suc- 
cessfully to the horse in an ordinary stable would seem to forbid a 
lengthy description in a book of this kind. 



WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 

By Ch. B. Michener, V. S. 

[Revised in 1003 by John R. Mohler, V. M. D., A. M.] 
DESCRIPTION OF WOUNDS. 

A wound is an injury to any part of the body involving a solution 
of continuity or disruption of the affected parts and is caused by 
violence, with or without laceration of the skin. In accordance with 
this definition we have the following varieties of wounds: Incised, 
punctured, contused, lacerated, gunshot, and poisoned. They may 
further be classified as superficial, deep, or penetrating, and also as 
unclean, if hair, dirt, or splinters of wood are present; as infected, 
when contaminated with germs; and as aseptic, if the wound does not 
contain germs. 

An incised wound is a simple cut made with a sharp body, like a 
knife, producing merely a division of the tissues. The duller the 
body, the more force is required, the more tissues destroyed, and a 
greater time will be required for healing. In a cut wound the edges 
are even and definite, while those of a lacerated wound are irregular 
and torn. Three conditions are present as a result of an incised 
wound: (1) Pain, (2) hemorrhage, (3) gaping of the wound. The 
first pain is due to the crushing and tearing of the nerve fibers. In 
using a sharp knife and by cutting quickly, the animal suffers less 
pain and healing occurs more rapidly. The secondary pain is usu- 
ally due to the action of the air and inflammatory processes. When 
air is kept from the wound pain ceases soon after the lesion is pro- 
duced. Hemorrhage is absent only in wounds of nonvascular tissues, 
as the cornea of the eye, the cartilage of joints, and other similar 
structures. Bleeding may be from the arteries, veins, or capillaries. 
In the latter form of bleeding the blood oozes from the part in drops. 
Hemorrhage from the veins is dark red and issues in a steady stream 
without spurting. In arterial bleeding the blood is bright red and 
spurts with each heart beat. This latter variety of hemorrhage is 
the most dangerous, and should be stopped at once before attempting 
any further treatment. Bleeding from small veins and capillaries 
ceases in a short time spontaneously, while larger vessels, especially 
arteries, require some form of treatment to cause complete stoppage 
of the hemorrhage. 

459 



400 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

HEMOSTASIA. 

By this term i^ meant the checking of the flow of blood. It may be 
accomplished by several methods, such as compress bandages, torsion, 
hot iron, and ligatures. The heat from a hot iron will cause the im- 
mediate clotting of the blood in the vessels, and this clot i> further 
supported by the production of a scab, or crust, over the portion 
seared. The iron should be at a red heat. If at a white heat, the tissue 
is charred, which makes it brittle and the bleeding is apt to be re- 
newed. If the iron is at a black heat, the tissue will stick to the iron 
and will pull away from the surface of the wound. Cold water ami 
ice bags quickly stop capillary bleeding, while hot water is preferable 
in more excessive hemorrhages. Some drugs, called styptics, pos-ess 
the power of contracting the walls of blood vessels and also of clot- 
ting the blood. A solution of the chloride of iron placed on a wound 
alone or by means of cotton drenched in the liquid produces a rapid 
and hard clot. Tannic acid, alum, acetic acid, alcohol, and oil of tur- 
pentine are all more or less active in this respect. To check bleeding 
from large vessels compression may be adopted. When it is rapid 
and dangerous and from an artery, the fingers may be used for press- 
ing between the wound and the heart (digital compression), but if 
from a vein, the pressure should be exerted on the other side of the 
wound. Tourniquet may also be used by passing a strap around the 
part and tightening after placing a pad over the hemorrhage. The 
rubber ligature has now replaced the tourniquet and is bound tightly 
around the limb to arrest the bleeding. Tampons, such as cotton, tow, 
or oakum, may be packed tightly in the wound and then sewed up. 
After remaining there for twenty-four or forty-eight hours they are 
removed. Bleeding may sometimes be easily checked by passing a 
pin under the vessel and by taking a horsehair and forming a figure 
s by running it above and below the pin, thus causing pressure on the 
vessel. Torsion is the twisting of the blood vessel until the walls 
come together and form a barrier to the flow of blood. It may be ac- 
complished by the fingers, forceps, or by running a pin through the 
vessel, turning it several times, and then running the point into the 
tissue to keep it in a fixed position. 

Ligation is the third method for stopping a hemorrhage. Seize 
(he blood vessel with the artery forceps, pass a clean thread of silk 
around it. and tie about one-half inch from its end. The .silk should 
be sterilized by placing it in an antiseptic solution so as not to impede 
(he healing process or cause blood poisoning or lockjaw, which often 
follows the ligation of a vein with unsterili/ed material. Sometimes 
it will be impossible to reach the bleeding vessel, so it is necessary to 
pass the ligature around a mass of tissue which includes the blood 
vessel. Ligation is the most useful method of arresting hemorrhage, 



WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 461 

since it disturbs healing least and gives the greatest security against 
secondary hemorrhage. 

SUTURES. 

After the bleeding has been controlled and all foreign bodies 
removed from the wound, the gaping of the wound is noticeable. It 
is caused by the contraction of the muscles and elastic fibers, and its 
degree depends on the extent, direction, and nature of the cut. This 
gaping will hinder the healing process so that it must be overcome by 
bringing the edges together by some sort of sutures or pins, or by a 
bandage applied from below upward. As suture material, ordinary 
cotton thread is good if well sterilized, as is also horsehair, catgut, 
silk, and various kinds of wire. If the suture is made too tight, the 
subsequent swelling may cause the stitch to tear out. In order to 
make a firm suture the depth of the stitch should be the same as 
the distance the stitch is from the edge of the wound. The deeper 
the suture the more tissue is embraced and the fewer the number of 
stitches required. In tying a suture use the square or reef knot. 
Closure of wounds by means of adhesive plaster, collodion, and metal 
clamps is not practiced to any great extent in veterinary practice. 

PROCESS OF HEALING. 

In those cases where perfect stoppage of bleeding, perfect coapta- 
tion of the edges of the wound, and perfect cleanliness are obtained, 
healing occurs within three clays, without the formation of granula- 
tions, pus, or proud flesh, by what is termed first lute id ion. If wounds 
do not heal in this manner they will gap somewhat and become warm 
and painful. Healing then occurs by granulation or suppuration, 
which is termed healing by second intention. The sides of the wound 
become covered with granulation tissue which may fill the wound and 
sometimes overlap the lips, forming a fungoid growth called proud 
flesh. Under favorable conditions the edges of the wound appear to 
grow together by the end of the first week, and the whole surface 
gradually becomes dry, and finally covered with pigmented skin, when 
the wound is healed. The cause of pus formation in wounds is usually 
due to the presence of germs. For this reason the utmost care should 
be adopted to keep clean wounds aseptic, or free from germs, and to 
make unclean wounds antiseptic by using antiseptic fluids to kill the 
microbes present in the wound. The less the injurious action of this 
fluid on the wound, and the greater its power to kill germs, the more 
valuable it becomes. All antiseptics are not equally destructive, and 
some germs are more susceptible to one antiseptic than to another. 
The most important are (1) bichloride of mercury, which is to be pre- 
ferred on horses. It becomes weakened in its action if placed in a 
wooden pail or on an oily or greasy surface. It is used in the strength 



462 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

of 1 part of bichloride to 1,000 to 5,000 parts of water, according to 
the delicacy of the tissue to which it is applied. (2) Carbolic acid in 
from _ to T> per cent solution is used on infected wounds and for clean- 
ing instruments, dressings, and sponges. It unites well with oil and 
is preferred to the bichloride of mercury on a greasy surface. A 5 
per cent solution in oil is often used under the name of carbolized oil. 
(3) Aluminum acetate is an efficient and cheap antiseptic, and is com- 
posed of 1 part alum and 5 parts acetate of lead, mixed in 20 parts of 
water. (4) Boracic acid is good in a 2 to 1 percent solution to cleanse 
wounds and wash eyes. Creolin and lysol may be used in a 2 to 5 per 
cent solution in water. Iodoform is one of the most used of the anti- 
septics and it also acts as an anodyne, stimulates granulation, and 
checks wound secretion. A very efficacious and inexpensive powder 
is made by taking 5 parts of iodoform and 95 parts of sugar, making 
what is called iodoform sugar. Tannic acid is a useful drug in the 
treatment of wounds, in that it arrests hemorrhage, checks secre- 
tion, and favors the formation of a scab. A mixture of 1 part tannic 
acid and 3 parts iodoform is good in suppurating wounds. Iodol, 
white sugar, ground and roasted coffee, and powdered charcoal are all 
used as protectives and absorbents on suppurating surfaces. More 
depends on the care and the method of application of the drug than on 
the drug itself. On aseptic wounds use only those antiseptics that do 
not irritate the tissue. If care is used in the application of the anti- 
septic, corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid is to be recommended, 
but in the hands of irresponsible parties lysol or creolin is safer. In 
order to keep air from the wound and to absorb all wound secretions 
rapidly, a dressing should be applied. If the wound is aseptic, the 
dressing should be likewise, such as cotton gauze, sterile cotton, 
oakum, or tow. This dressing should be applied with uniform pres- 
sure at all times and secured by a bandage. Allow it to remain for a 
week or ten days if the wound is aseptic or if the dressing does not 
become loose or misplaced or become drenched with secretions from 
the wound, or if pain, fever, or loss of appetite does not develop. 
The dressing should then be removed, the wound treated antiseptically, 
and a sterilized dressing applied. 

HEALING UNDER A SCAB. 

This often occurs in small superficial wounds that have been kept 
aseptic. In order for a scab to form, the wound must not gap, 
secrete freely, or become infected with germs. The formation of scab 
i- favored by astringents and styptics, such as tannic acid, iodoform, 
ami 5 per cent solution of zinc chloride. In case of large hollow 
wounds that can not be dressed, such as fistulous withers, open joints, 
etc., antisepsis may be obtained by warm water irrigation with or 
without an antiseptic fluid. It should continue day and night, and 



LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. 463 

never be interrupted for more than eight hours, for germs will then 
have gained headway and will be difficult to remove. Four or five 
days of irrigation will be sufficient, for granulations will then have 
formed and pus will remain on the outside if it forms. For perma- 
nent irrigation the stream should be very small, or drop by drop, but 
should play over the entire surface of the wound. It is always better 
to heal an infected wound under a scab, or treat it as an open wound, 
than it is to suture the wound, thus favoring the growth of the in- 
closed germs and retarding ultimate healing. In the latter case pus 
may develop in the wound, form pockets by sinking into the tissues, 
and cause various complications. Such pockets should be well drained, 
either through incisions at the bottom or by drainage tubes or setons. 
They should then be frequently syringed out or continuously irrigated. 
In case proud flesh appears it should be kept down either by pressure 
or by caustics, as powdered Milestone, silver nitrate, chloride of 
antimony, or by astringents, such as burnt alum. If they prove 
resistant to this treatment they may be removed by scissors or the 
knife or by searing with the hot iron. The following rules for the 
treatment of wounds should be followed: (1) See that the wound is 
clean, removing all foreign bodies. (2) For this purpose use a clean 
finger rather than a probe. (3) Arrest all hemorrhage before closing 
the wound. (4) Antiseptics should only be used if you suspect the 
wound to be infected. (5) When pus is present treat without closing 
the wound. (6) This may be accomplished by drainage tubes, absorb- 
ent dressings, setons, or continuous irrigations. (7) Protect the 
wound against infection while healing. 

LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. 

Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together, 
although there is, of course, this difference, that in contused wounds 
there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, how- 
ever, are, as a rule, also contused — the surrounding tissues are bruised 
to a greater or lesser extent, While such wounds may not appear 
at first sight to be as serious as incised wounds, they are commonly 
very much more so. Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are 
always to be regarded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic 
infection or mortification as a result of these injuries. We find in 
severe contusions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues ; 
disorganization and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper 
seated structures. Abscesses, single or multiple, may also result and 
call for special treatment, 

In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly 
inconsiderable ; even very large blood vessels may be torn apart with- 
out inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and 
uneven. These wounds are produced by barbed wire or some blunt 



464 DISEASES OF TPIE HORSE. 

object, as where a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners 
of buildings, or where he is struck by the pole or shafts of another 
team, falling on rough irregular stones, etc. 

Contused wounds are caused by blunt instruments moving with 
sufficient velocity to bruise and crush the tissues, as running against 
objects, kicks, or falling on large, hard masses. 

Treatnu nt. — In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exer- 
cised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear, 
lo see if any foreign body be present. Very often splinters of wood 
or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent 
the wound from healing; or if it should heal the wound soon opens 
again, discharging a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the 
presence of some object in the part. After a thorough exploration 
these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with warm 
water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 
part to 100 of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in 
lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened 
in vitality and structure by the contusions that stitches will not hold; 
they only irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to secure coap- 
tation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in 
the treatment of lacerated wounds is to secure a free exit for the pus. 
If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if pus is found to be bur- 
rowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a 
counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound 
being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and after- 
wards injected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as 
chloride of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A dependent opening 
must be maintained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated 
hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds afford much 
relief and should be persisted in. 

BRUISES. 

Bruises are nothing but contused wounds where the skin has 
not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of con- 
tinuity of the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, 
etc., which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of 
the bruised parts. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, many 
cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation with hot water for 
from two to four hours. The water should be allowed about this 
time to gradually become cool and then cold. Cold fomentation must 
then be kept up for another hour or two. Dry the parts thoroughly 
and quickly and bathe them freely with camphor 1 ounce, sweet oil 
8 ounces, or with equal parts of lead water and laudanum. A dry, 
light bandage should (hen be applied, the horse allowed to rest, 
and if necessary the treatment may be repeated each day for two or 



PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 465 

three clays. If, however, the wound is so severe that sloughing must 
ensue, we should encourage this by poultices made of linseed meal, 
wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is 
to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is 
bad smelling. After the slough has fallen off the wound is to be 
dressed with warm antiseptic washes of carbolic acid, chloride of 
zinc, permanganate of potash, etc. If granulating (filling up) too 
fast, use burnt alum or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment, 
we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation 
call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by 
placing the injured animal on soft or green food. A physic of Bar- 
bados aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible after the 
accident. Sedatives, such as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops, 
three times a day, or ounce doses of saltpeter every four hours, may 
also be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and 
if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of the 
patient. must be supported by good food and tonics. One of the 
best tonics is as follows: Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gen- 
tian, and powdered ginger, of each A ounces. Mix thoroughly and 
give a heaping tablespoonful twice a day, on the feed or as a drench. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 

Punctured wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or 
blunt pointed substance, such as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the 
orifice of these wounds is always small in proportion to their depth. 
In veterinary practice punctured wounds are much more common 
than the others. They involve the feet most frequently, next the 
legs, and often the head and face from nails protruding through the 
stalls and trough. They are not only the most frequent, but they are 
also the most serious, owing to the difficulty of obtaining thorough 
disinfection. Another circumstance rendering them so is the lack of 
attention that they at first receive. The external wound is so small 
that but little or no importance is attached to it, yet in a short time 
swelling, pain, and acute inflammation, often of a serious character, 
are manifested. 

Considering the most common of the punctured wounds, we must 
give precedence to those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about 
iron works, around building places, etc., arc most likely to receive 
"nails in the feet." The animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron 
or screws, and forces them into the soles of the feet. If the nail, or 
whatever it is that has punctured the foot, is fast in some large or 
heavy body, and is withdrawn as the horse lifts his foot, lameness 
may last for only a few steps; but unless properly attended to at 
once he will be found in a day or two to be very lame in the injured 
H. Doc. 795, 50-2 30 



466 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

member. If the foreign body remains in the foot, he gradually grows 
worse from the time of puncture until the cause is discovered and 
removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven into the " quick " (sensi- 
tive lamina^) and allowed to remain, the horse gradually evinces more 
pain from day to day ; but if the nail has at once been removed by the 
smith, lameness does not, as a rule, show itself for some days; or, if 
the nail is simply driven " too close," not actually pricking the horse, 
he may not show any lameness for a week or even much longer. At 
this point it is due the blacksmith to say that, considering how thin 
the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many horses while shoe- 
ing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its course by striking 
an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail itself splitting, 
the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or nails driven 
" too close," but rather that many more are not so injured. It is not 
always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith, by any 
means, that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless shoers 
we do meet with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of these 
accidents points rather to the general care and attention given by 
these much-abused mechanics. 

From the construction of the horse's foot (being incased in an im- 
permeable horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the 
orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive 
of lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded 
by swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this mat- 
ter must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive 
parts within it until it generally opens " between hair and hoof." 
We can thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus ( lock- 
jaw) more frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the 
extensive, or at times complete, separation and " casting " of the hoof, 
these wounds must always be regarded with grave apprehension. 

Symptoms and treatment. — A practice which, if never deviated 
from — that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly 
examining the foot each and every time the horse comes into the 
-table — will enable us to reduce the serious consequences of punctured 
wounds of the feet to the minimum. If the wound has resulted from 
pricking, lameness follows soon after shoeing; if from the nails being 
driven too close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week 
after receiving the shoe. We should always inquire as to the time of 
shoeing, examine the shoe carefully, and see whether it has been par- 
tially pulled and the horse stepped back upon some of the nails or the 
clip. The pain from these wounds is lancinating; the horse is seen 
to raise and lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether; 
often he ]>oints the foot, flexes the leg, and knuckles at the fetlock. 
Swelling of the fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and 



WOUNDS OF JOINTS. 467 

is apt to mislead us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this 
can not be properly done without removing the shoe. The nails 
should be drawn separately and carefully examined. If there is no 
escape of pus from the nail holes, or if the nails themselves are not 
moist, we must continue our examination of the foot by carefully 
pinching or tapping it at all parts. With a little practice we can de- 
tect the spot where pain is the greatest or discover the delicate line or 
scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign body. The entire sole 
is then to be thinned, after which we are to carefully cut down upon 
the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, and, finally, through 
the sole at this spot. When the matter has escaped, the sole, so far 
as it was undermined by pus, is- to be removed. The foot must now 
be poulticed for one or two days and afterwards dressed with a com- 
press of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other anti- 
septic dressing. 

If we discover a nail or other object in the foot, the principal direc- 
tion, after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the 
sole, in a funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is 
imperative, and if a good free opening has been made and is main- 
tained for a few days, hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings 
applied, the cure is mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The 
horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all 
applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. 
In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin 
bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their 
recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult 
that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS. 

These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious, 
and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or death of the 
animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, 
though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symp- 
toms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it 
occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most com- 
mon mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from 
the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways. 
At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner 
discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little 
attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness be- 
come excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the 
injured' leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pres- 
sure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance — 
quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 106° F., the 



468 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and 
shows by an anxious countenance the pain he suffers. He may lie 
down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb 
becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain 
for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignifi- 
cant, is now constantly discharging a thin whitish or yellowish fluid — 
joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the 
wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling some- 
what the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at dif- 
ferent places, discharging at first a thin bloody fluid that soon as- 
sumes the character above described. 

Treatment of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory. 
We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is 
seen, early — within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours after 
the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly estab- 
lished the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punc- 
tured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but 
small moment, we should, without the least delay, apply a strong 
eantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the 
orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is 
almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two w T ays — 
first, the sAvelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely 
closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the 
superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all 
deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if 
pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in 
about one week, but should the changes described as occurring later 
in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat by cooling 
lotions and the application to the wound of chloride of zinc. 10 
grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made up of flour and alum. 
A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be 
removed w T hen swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms 
demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must lie 
to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated prob- 
ing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an 
open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should 
carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after 
removing them the probe must not again be used. The' medicines 
used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to 
the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by 
bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of 
open joints where the suffering is great. At first we should admin- 
ister a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, 
as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give 
quinine, or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day. 



WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. 469 

WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS. 

Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there 
is an escape of synovial fluid, " sinew water." Where the tendons are 
simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough 
exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat 
with the nour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. 
Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious 
and often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations 
(proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pro- 
nounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we 
should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually 
lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress 
moistened with a 10-grain chloride of zinc solution. When proud 
flesh appears this is best kept under control by repeated applications 
of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock 
horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though 
blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. The length of time 
required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in 
attempting a cure, if the subject is old and comparatively valueless. 

GUNSHOT WOUNDS. 

These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size 
and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so 
seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them 
seems unnecessary. If a wound has been made by a bullet a careful 
examination should be made to ascertain if the ball has passed 
through or out of the body. If it has not we must then probe for the 
ball, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do 
so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed, 
and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving 
rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it 
is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the 
body. 

The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are 
inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the 
bullet's exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and 
ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often 
softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue. 
Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone 
without splintering it. Leaden bullets may split, producing two exit 
wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be 
struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such 
an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gun- 
shot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be 



470 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

treated the same as punctured wounds, i. e., stop the hemorrhage, 
remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or 
poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti- 
septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus 
accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depend- 
ing parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the 
animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused, 
wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound, and treat as 
directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a 
distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains 
must be picked out. but as a rule this "peppering" of the skin 
amounts to but little. 

POISONED WOUNDS. 

These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of 
bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is 
often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from 
the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be 
closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and pos- 
sibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption 
of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the 
legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of tem- 
perature. Death may follow in five to ten hours. 

Treatment. — Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline 
liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of 
ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen 
the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poi- 
sonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which 
is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and 
death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept 
alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature 
should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison 
from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thor- 
oughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver ni- 
trate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of 
one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the 
wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound 
to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected 
wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be 
removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable 
bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per 
cent solution of zinc chloride, and then apply caustics or the actual 
cautery. 

HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS). 

Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting 
harness or saddles. When a horse has been resting from steady work 



SITFASTS, BURNS, AND SCALDS. 471 

for some time, particularly after being kept idle in a stable on a 
scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and 
sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is apt 
to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and 
poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin, 
and thus pave the way for an abscess, or for a chronic blemish, unless 
attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable 
pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity. 
This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep- 
seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the 
muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which 
is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are com- 
monly called " sitfasts " and, while they occur in other places, are 
most frequently found under the saddle. (See also page 448.) 

Treatment. — Abrasions are best prevented by bringing the animal 
gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in 
order that the muscles will be hard and the skin tough. The harness 
should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be 
cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable. 
Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on 
the spine, and the saddle blankets should be clean and dry. Parts of 
the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the 
saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt. 

The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them 
may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites 
of two eggs ; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of 
water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of 
water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost 
without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a 
cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction. 

If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be care- 
fully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics. 
During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if 
this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the 
abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing 
can not occur. 

BURNS AND SCALDS. 

These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occur- 
rence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove 
quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the 
severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree, 
where there is a simple reddening of the skin ; second degree, where 
there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters ; third degree, where there 
is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would 
occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escaping 



472 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other 
causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids). light- 
ning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric rail- 
ways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the ani- 
mal (if he does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of 
fever — shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness, 
quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. Xo matter which 
aucnt is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practi- 
cally of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead 
one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the 
shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts 
where there is much movement of the tissues are grave, and. if at all 
extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate 
destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree, 
where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue, 
even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to 
treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of 
the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does 
take place, which, in any event, will require at least six or eight 
weeks. Those due to lightning stroke and trolley wires are likely to 
occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they are not 
likely to prove serious. 

Treatment. — Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the 
burn- are extensive the constitutional symptoms should be combated 
with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnine, 
caffein. and other stimulants to prevent shock. In the local treat- 
ment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form 
and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended. 
In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflam- 
mation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron 
oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy, 
but a modification of it known as Stahl's liniment is perhaps better; 
this liniment is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts, 
bicarbonate soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. This liniment should 
be applied freely t<> the scorched surface and covered with a layer 
of borated gauze or absorbent cotton to protect it from the air. Re- 
new the application frequently. Carbolated vaseline may be used 
in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the fol- 
lowing solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts, 
water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this 
solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear, 
should be opened with a (dean needle, allowing the skin to remain. 
Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should 
now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the sec- 
ond and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with 



GANGRENE, OR MORTIFICATION. 473 

nonpoisonotis dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open 
wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made 
of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When slough- 
ing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a 
warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue 
removed, and either a dry antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated 
vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue 
(proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate 
in the form of a caustic pencil. 

Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the 
parts with a copious quantity of cold water or by the application of 
whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or 
use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a 
caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar 
should be the first application. StaliFs liniment is probably the best 
general application for all burns for the first week ; then this should 
be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings. 

GANGRENE. 

Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part, 
and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the 
body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their 
blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and 
septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids 
and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pres- 
sure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gan- 
grene — dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses 
from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of 
some portion of the harness. 

Symptoms. — There is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves. 
In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gan- 
grene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is dis- 
turbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes cov- 
ered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch 
is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the 
case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves 
deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic syno- 
vitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene 
is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its 
virulence. 

Treatment. — The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the 
influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as 
excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following 
decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently 
turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist 



474 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and 
fills will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough 
off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, seize it with a pair of 
pincers and draw it away. After this treat the patch as an open 
wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disin- 
fected with creolin, lysol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of cam- 
phor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accu- 
mulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead 
tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should 
be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry 
gangrene. 

ULCERATION. 

An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin 
or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a 
process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than 
regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer. 
When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic 
ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in wdiich the bottom of the ulcer pro- 
jects beyond the edge of'the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or 
bloody-white liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or 
leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard con- 
nective tissue which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it 
is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer. 

Causes. — As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are 
among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight 
recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors. 
Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause 
the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders. 

Treatment. — This consists in removing at once the exciting cause. 
The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solu- 
tions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antisep- 
tic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings 
of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dress- 
ings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water 
and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best re- 
moved by a curet, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common 
wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided. 

ABSCESSES. 

These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, 
at different parts of the body, and may be elassed as acute, ;uul cold, 
or chronic, abscesses. 

When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or 
furuncle: when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the 



ABSCESSES. 475 

formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is 
called a carbuncle. 

ACUTE ABSCESSES. 

Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, 
muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two 
former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and 
the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, 
occurring during the existence of " strangles," or " colt distemper." 
The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to slowly increase in 
size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is 
uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little 
while becomes soft — fluctuating — at some portion, mostly in the 
center. From this time on the abscess is said to be " pointing," or 
" coming to a head," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting 
prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with trans- 
uded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a 
short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity grad- 
ually fills up — heals by granulations. 

Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or 
injuries. In all cases where abscesses are forming we should hurry 
the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. 
When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their 
surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an 
abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can 
scarcely be recommended to owners of stock indiscriminately, since 
this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anat- 
omy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full 
ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is impera- 
tive if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we 
must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may 
be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots — 
inspissated pus — but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open 
by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too 
soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made 
into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most com- 
plete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required 
for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly 
indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. 

The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating anti- 
septic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 to 5 per 
cent solution of creolin, 1 to 1,000 bichloride of mercury, or 1 per 
cert permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul 
and bad smelling, their cavities should first be syringed with 1 part 
of hydrogen peroxide to 2 parts of water and then followed by the 
injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics. 



476 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



(Oil) ABSCESSES. 



Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings 
that are the result of a low, or chronic, form of inflammation, in the 
center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often 
-ecu near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil. 
The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter 
than sin rounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. There 
is a pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, evinced upon moving the 
animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, sur- 
rounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the 
extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This dif- 
fused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass 
somewhat Avell defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses 
is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length 
of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening 
in the size of the tumor; it remains statu quo. If, however, the ani- 
mal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar 
causes the surrounding tissues to again assume an edematous condi- 
tion, which after a few days' rest disappears, leaving the tumor as 
before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may 
discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the 
mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small — often not 
more than a tablespoonful — and for this reason it can not, in all 
cases, be detected. 

Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-con- 
tinued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow 
inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a 
small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially 
organized walls, thatare not as well defined as is the circumference 
of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble. 

Treatment. — The means recommended to bring the acute abscess 
" to a head " are but rarely effectual with this variety : or, if successful, 
too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other 
and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all. in 
caic fully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions 
must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor 
(to its very bottom if necessary), and the matter allowed to escape. 
After this, and whether Ave have found matter or not, we must induce 
an active inflammation of the tumor in order to promote solution of 
the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well 
into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, 
carbolic acid, tincture of iodine, etc., or we may pack the incision with 
powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for twenty- 
four hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the 
Avails. Suppuration follows, and this should now be encouraged by 



ABSCESSES AND FISTULAS. 477 

hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and 
should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the 
agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is 
probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the 
incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. 
This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place, if the 
Avails remain thickened and indurated. 

It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters 
in the treatment of cold abscesses, since, though apparently removed 
by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put 
to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of 
the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, 
and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not 
remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass. 

FISTULAS. 

Definition. — The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon 
the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or 
passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular 
formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with 
the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the 
name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such 
lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the 
poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. 
The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil 
equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of 
a fistula and may therefore be considered and treated as fistula of the 
foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the 
face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the 
mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise 
from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes 
noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal 
fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition. 
Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts, 
and thus we have the so-called mammary, or lachrymal, fistulas. 

Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane 
and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of 
exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy 
parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers 
or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy, 
and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tend- 
ency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated forma- 
tion of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of 
gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures 
and also favors its retention among them. 



478 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Causes. — Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, 
or long-continued irritation by the harness. Ajoaong the more com- 
mon causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter 
or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse 
striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low door-. 
etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have 
thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or. 
among saddle horses, those that arc very low on the withers, the 
saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. They are often 
caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, 
and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. In either 
of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not prop- 
erly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. The pus burrows 
and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only 
when the sinus becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the 
parts, the matter is forced to the surface. 

Symptoms. — These, of course, will vary according to the progress 
made by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice sore- 
ness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of 
the withers we will see small tortuous lines running from the point of 
irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. 
These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the 
touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of 
the dorsal vertebra', which is hot and painful and rapidly enlarging. 
The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat 
and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling 
remains and continues to enlarge. 

A fistulous nicer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition 
which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle. 
At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some 
danger that the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits unless 
handled with the greatest care. The disease in its early stages may be 
recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory 
swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stillness 
of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may 
disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situ- 
ated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running 
ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually 
develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the 
enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as 
upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment. 

Treatment. — In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged 
lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently 
be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. 
A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered 



FISTULAS. 479 

saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs 
high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may 
be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed 
spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved 
very beneficial, and has afforded great relief to the patient. 

Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water ; seda- 
tive washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform lini- 
ment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should 
this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation 
of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations 
and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of 
pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest point. 
In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple 
abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as 
fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues, 
the healing which follows will be rapid and satisfactory. 

Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the 
necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful ex- 
amination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sin- 
uses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment 
is to make an opening from below so that the matter must all escape. 
Rarely is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to 
bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not 
irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the 
essential and rational treatment. 

If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of pur- 
ulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are 
found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes, 
there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some 
of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has 
assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has 
existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently 
be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the 
walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such 
a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics 
which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will 
also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to re- 
place that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment 
of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and 
rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the 
canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder 
and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or 
oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening 
after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin 
over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash 



480 DISEASES OF THE HoitSE. 

(fused) 1 t<> 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening 
and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then 
be secured so thai he can not reach the pari with his teeth. A fter the 
caustic plug has Keen in place for twenty- four hours, it may be re 
moved and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has 
become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest 
extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the in- 
troduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep 
tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the ver- 
tebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper 
drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consisl of 
caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating 
sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce 
of chloride of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during 
a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally 
injected. Injections of Yillate's solution or alcoholic solution of cor- 
rosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine 
will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below, 
and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom. 

Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined 
tumor, the placing of l'O to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a 
single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin will 
often produce ;i sloughing of the affected parts in a week or ten days, 
after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding 
parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping 
caustics by the application of lard of oil. as previously suggested. 

Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires time and 
patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be 
opened at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications 
must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent 
antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached. 

It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deeply or 
in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes 
impracticable. In other cases the bones may become attacked in some 
inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases 
it is often best to destroy the horse at once. 

The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not 
uncommon. The secondary attack in these cases is seldom serious. 
The lesion should be carefully cleansed and afterwards injected with 
a solution of zinc sulphate. •_'<> grains to the ounce of water, every sec- 
ond or third day until a cure is effected. 

In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency toward the burrow- 
ing of pus downward to lower structures, or in some cases upward 
toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is 
always swelling at the coronet, accompanied by heat and pain. 



FISTULAS. 481 

Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an 
abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or 
any other foreign body which may have become lodged in the sole of 
the foot should be opened at once from below so as to allow free exit 
to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly 
to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient 
in preventing the formation of an abscess. 

When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated pre- 
cisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body ; that is, the 
sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities so as to 
afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be 
trimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the 
wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic 
wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages, 
which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by exclud- 
ing all dirt from the affected part. 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 31 



GENERAL DISEASES. 

By Rush Shippen Huidekoper. M. I)., Vet. ■ 

[Revised in 1903 by Leonard l'earson, B. S., V. M. I).] 

ANIMAL TISSUES. 

The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which 
are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as simi- 
lar, simple, and lixed in their organization as the joists and boards 
which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a 
furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great 
railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus sim- 
ple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their 
study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which 
differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or 
a ligament from a fibrous band — the result of disease filling in an old 
lesion and tying one organ with another — is as complicated as the 
nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for 
the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge 
which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight. 

All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar ele- 
ments which are governed by the same rules of life, though they may 
appear at first glance to be widely different. These are (a) amor- 
phous substances, (h) fibers, and (c) cells. 

(a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid 
of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter 
in solution; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma 
which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates 
the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue 
or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle 
end to a bone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together, 
as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impreg- 
nated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the pro- 
toplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life. 

(b) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have 
(inly a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, <>r 
cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven 
regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two 
kinds white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, 
and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and 
very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence 
of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as 

482 



DESCRIPTION OF THE TISSUES. 483 

a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its 
strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form 
until destroyed by death. 

(c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are 
masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and 
frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or 
food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or 
into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function 
but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of grouping 
of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose 
connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4) 
cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves. 

(1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaf- 
folding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles 
surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the 
structures of almost all of the organs. In this the fibers are loosely 
meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient 
fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the 
skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumu- 
lates, and as the framework of all glands. 

(2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the 
termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attach- 
ment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and 
dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or 
lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. 

(3) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers 
which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in 
small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the con- 
tractile elements. 

(4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vas- 
cularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or 
cells of this tissue. 

(5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter 
impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. 

(6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the 
body and line all of its cavities and glands, are made up of single or 
stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of 
amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers. 
When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as 
in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it 
serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue 
or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing 
away while new cells replace it from beneath. 

(7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each 
other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as 



4S 1 DISEASES OF THE H0B8E. 

receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch- 
board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires. 

All of these tissues are supplied with blood iu greater or less quan- 
tity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is 
called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, 
or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large amount of blood is required : 
if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the 
withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periph- 
ery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to 
their surface by the blood vessels. 

Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small termina- 
tions of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or 
the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems arc 
small delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide 
into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every 
element. 

In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular 
current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the 
center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted 
to the walls of the vessels and move very slowly. The supply of 
blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue, 
and under normal conditions the outflow compensates exactly the sup- 
ply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the amount 
of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic 
system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased 
organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue 
or organ receives its proper quantity of blood; the nutritive elements 
are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which 
the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achieve- 
ment of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and 
oxygen brought fry the arterial blood, then by the veins this same 
fluid passes off, less its oxj^gen, loaded with the waste products, which 
are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those 
which have undergone combustion. The above brief outline indi- 
cates the process of nutrition of the tissues. 

Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or 
morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed. 

CONGESTION. 

Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in a part. Ex- 
cessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the 
red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in 
the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe 
work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little 
rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a 
morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is 



CONGESTION. 485 

active or passive. The former is produced by an increased sup- 
ply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the 
escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased 
supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented 
nutrition. 

ACTIVE CONGESTION. 

Active congestion is caused by — 

(1) Functional activity. — Any organ which is constantly or exces- 
sively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the 
vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened, 
lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional amount of blood en- 
gorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results. 
Example : The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed 
or severe work, in damp weather. 

(2) Irritants. — Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of 
these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an 
augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair — a 
hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow. 

(3) Nerve influence. — This may produce congestion either by act- 
ing on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve dis- 
turbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ. 

(4) Plethora and sanguinary temperament. — Full-blooded animals 
are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a 
lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circula- 
tion in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in 
larger quantities. A well-bred full-blooded horse is much more sub- 
ject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old worn-out 
animal. 

(5) Fevers. — In fever the heart works more actively and forces the 
current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it 
requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures 
already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find 
alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which 
interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a 
local predisposition to congestion. 

(6) Warm climate and summer heat. — Warmth of the atmosphere 
relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up 
their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in 
the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance 
of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion, 
especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive 
colics and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter. 

(7) Previous congestion. — Whether the previous congestion of any 
organ has been a continuous normal one — that is, a repeated func- 
tional activity — or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it al- 



486 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

ways leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed 
to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy 
tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the Lungs from 
a severe drive is apt to have another attack from even a Lesser cause. 

The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels, 
accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effu- 
sion of a poll ion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues 
which surround the vessels. Where the changes produced by conges- 
tion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital 
organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented ani- 
mals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it becomes 
swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective 
tissues; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion; 
the part is frequently painful to the animal from pressure of the effu- 
sion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with. 
The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished. 
Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract. 
The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds. 

PASSIVE CONGESTION. 

Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the 
current of blood from a part. 

Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circu- 
lation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood. 
We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the 
sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of 
the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the 
blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs 
of the pelvic cavity. 

Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins, 
retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the 
body, causing passive congestion. 

The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, con- 
sist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation 
of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive conges- 
tion we have a dark thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of 
the rich combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active 
congestion. 

The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In 
the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the exces- 
sive amount of blood and are relieved; the transuded serum or fluid 
of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to it > normal 
condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to fu- 
ture trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations 
take place, and we have inflammation. 



GENERAL DISEASES. 487 

INFLAMMATION. 

[Synonyms: Inflammatio, Latin, from inflammare, to flaine, to burn; phleg- 
masia <p\Eyua6ia, Greek ; inflammation, French; inflammazione, Italian; In- 
flamacion, Spanish; Entziindung, German.] 

Inflammation is a hypemutrition of a tissue. It is described by 
Doctor Agnew, the surgeon, as " a double-edged sword, cutting either 
way for good or for evil." The increased nutrition may be moderate 
and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at 
first ; or it may produce a new growth differing in quality ; or it may 
be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die 
from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction 
of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process 
of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflam- 
mation is described as acute or chronic, with a vast number of inter- 
mediate forms. When the phenomena are marked it is termed 
sthenic; when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble 
constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflamma- 
tions are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a 
characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin, 
character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary 
inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited, 
as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar, in 
pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or 
it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive 
lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which 
affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflamma- 
tion are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the 
initial step of all inflammation. 

The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflamma- 
tion of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on 
the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart 
pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the 
lungs, the intestines, and the lamina? of the feet, is more apt to have 
pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold- 
blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones, 
spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular 
skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc. 

Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air 
passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to 
troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones. 

The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or 
draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory 
diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an 
important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group 
of horses exposed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting 



488 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. 

cause of inflammation, the one which has just been eating will be at- 
tacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just 
been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflamma- 
tion of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using 
its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the Laminae 
of the feet. 

The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some 
form. This may be a pathogenic organism — a disease germ — or it 
may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises, 
injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions, 
such as an exec— of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all 
cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches 
of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the 
tissue. 

Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as 
above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which 
drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively 
supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which 
has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have 
pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been 
fed is more apt to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same in- 
fluence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the 
intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion, 
change of color, due to an increased supply of blood; swelling, from 
the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding 
tissues; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain, 
due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may 
be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In 
addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more 
or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin 
will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe 
spavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked 
fever. 

The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion, 
distention of the blood A'essels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood 
into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more complete stagna- 
tion of the blood; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out 
as well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in 
themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate 
from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or mul- 
tiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant 
in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by 
the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply. 

Whether the cell in an inflamed part be the white ameboid cell of 



PLATEXXXVU. 




1 '-Uhinflarned. wing of the bat 




2 Inflamed wing of the !><it 



JULIUS BIEN SCO.N^ 



Haines, after Agnew 



INFLAMMATION. 



PLATE XXXVIII 




l - TSfon inflamed, mesentery of the frog, 400 diameters, reduced %:a a> I enzele 
with red and white corpuscles; b,b, Gelatinous nerve fibre,- c, Capillary,- da-, 
Darfc- bordered nerve fibre,- e,e. Connective tissue, with connective tissue, 
corpuscles <m<i leucocytes scattered sparsely through it 




MdA 



k , 



i 






C (/ <J 



V 






2-In/larned mesentery or the fro,/. 400 diameters, reduced. '-■; a-,b,Venule 
filled wiffi red and white corpuscles^ the red i/t the centre and the white, 
crowding along the walls- c, c. Capillary distended with red and white cor 
puscles/ member of the white natch decreased,- d,d, Connective tissue between 
venule and capillary filled with migrated leucocytes, e e, Connective tissue 
with, less infiltration,- f, 'Dark- bordered nerve fibre,- g, JVumher of 'nuclei 
in sfiealhs increased. 



I i.H ties d '•! after Aixifiw 



I N FLAM MATION. 



JS B1EN BlCuN' 



INFLAMMATION. 489 

the blood or the fixed connective tissue cell embedded in the fibers, it 
multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into 
two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is 
slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its 
ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the 
changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time 
to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half devel- 
oped, they die, and we then have destruction of tissue, and pus or 
matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements 
and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an interme- 
diate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in " proud 
flesh," large, soft splints; fungous growths, greasy heels, and thrush. 

Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intes- 
tines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in struc- 
ture, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the 
process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may 
be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the 
lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating 
cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily, 
and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at 
the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the 
multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication, 
and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious 
quittor, or fistula. 

This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the 
importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and 
the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the 
gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or 
opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the vet- 
erinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part 
and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease, 
and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for trou- 
bles which appear to the less experienced observer to be absolutely 
identical. 

Termination of inflammation. — Like congestion, inflammation may 
terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes 
chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the 
blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the 
kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs. 
The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the 
blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed 
cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into 
active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract, 
and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reas- 
sumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new 



490 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part 
than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or morti- 
fication. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small 
stages, each cell Losing its vitality after the other in more or less 
rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a 
considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the 
tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and 
proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the 
process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an 
ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also 
an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes 
from an ulcerating surface and the debris of broken-down tissue is 
known as pus, and the process by which this is formed is known as 
suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough, 
while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are 
especially likely to occur when the part becomes infected with micro- 
organisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus caus- 
ing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic micro- 
organisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in 
tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) with- 
out forming pus. 

TREATMENT OF INFLAMMATION. 

The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflamma- 
tion has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by 
excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor 
to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce 
the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements 
of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used 
locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act 
indirectly. 

Local treatment consists of — 

Removal of the cause, as a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic 
thrush; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin; 
decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors, 
irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. These causes, if 
removed, will frequently allow the part to heal at once. 

Rest. — Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus \\hh\s an 
inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated 
by movement, to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by 
the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye 
exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further 
fatigued by food. Absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities 
of easily digested food will often cure serious inflammatory troubles 
without further treatment. 



INFLAMMATION. 491 

Cold. — The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages, 
douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts 
the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the 
vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which 
inflammation produce. 

Heat. — Either dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens 
the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the 
surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of 
blood from the inflamed organ ; it also promotes the absorption of the 
effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part. 
Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the ap- 
plication of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of 
warm water ; or steaming with warm moist vapor, medicated or not, 
will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to 
inflammatory troubles in the air passages. 

Local bleeding. — This treatment frequently affords immediate relief 
by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which 
has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a 
stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary 
for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood- 
letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the 
inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath 
of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or 
the leg when acutely swelled. 

Counterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by 
bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the 
blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior 
diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid 
in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most com- 
mon counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste 
mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the 
sides where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the 
throat or inflammations at any point demand the treatment applied in 
the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the 
legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodine, and many other irritants are 
used in a similar way. 

Constitutional treatment in inflammation is designed to reduce the 
current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the dis- 
eased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general 
effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or 
elimination of the products of the inflammation. It consists of — 

Reduction of blood. — This is obtained in various ways. The dimi- 
nution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on 
the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the 
point of inflammation; it diminishes the body temperature or fever; 



492 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as ;i con- 
ductor of irritation in diseases. 

Blood-letting is the most rapid moans, and frequently acts like ;i 
charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must 
remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend 
on the blood. Hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full- 
blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease. 

Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the 
blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last 
remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements 
from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as 
rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimu- 
lated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material 
which may be acting as a poison in the blood. 

Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. 

Pin jthorct'tcs aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the 
form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the dis- 
charge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect 
on the blood pressure. 

Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be 
accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat 
production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way. 
hut they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should 
always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with 
knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimu- 
lants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by 
cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful 
procedure in many diseases. 

Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken 
tin- action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the cur- 
rent of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they 
lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used 
much less than formerly. 

Anodynes. quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the 
man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and 
the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. 
Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recupera- 
tion for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against 
the exhausting drain of the disease. 

The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor 
of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved 
to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing 
the quantity of food given to the patient. Foods of easy digestion do 
not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid diges- 
tive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the 



FEVERS. 493 

form of slops and cooling drinks where it would be totally refused if 
offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the 
labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened 
muscles of the jaws and throat. 

Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special 
indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the 
after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute 
stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they 
stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten 
the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory 
process ; they regulate the action of a weakened heart ; they promote 
healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes 
needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. 

FEVERS. 

[Synonyms: Febris, Latin ; pyrexia, Greek ; fldvre, French ; fieber, German ; 
febbre, Italian; calentura, Spanish.] 

The etymology of the word " fever," from the Latin fevere, to boil 
or to burn, and of pyrexia, from the Greek word irvp, fire, defines in a 
general way the meaning of the term. 

Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an 
elevation of the animal bod}' temperature, which may be only a de- 
gree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature, 
which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied by an 
acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and 
an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the 
body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of exces- 
sive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their 
allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may 
both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually 
preceded by chills as an essential symptom. 

Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. 
In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory 
character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are 
the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole 
body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the 
waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the 
blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are 
those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the 
whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the 
blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers 
of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, 
therefore, to the class of infectious diseases. 

Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last 
but a short time and terminate by critical phenomena ; intermittent 



494 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile 
symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to it> normal 
coikI it ion or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the func- 
tions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which 
include contagions diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic 
diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, 
such as variola, etc. 

Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, 
such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive 
work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the 
combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or 
the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating ma- 
terial, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, 
as in glanders or tuberculosis — the general train of symptoms are 
much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in 
quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action 
on one or another tissue. 

There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, 
which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there 
was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the cur- 
rent of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of the peripheral 
temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and 
an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may 
be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain 
from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by 
the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms 
or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. 

There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the exist- 
ence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which 
is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of 
the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a 
race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than 
temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the tem- 
perature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees, 
so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow 
any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue 
change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and 
no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This 
condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance 
and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this 
condition is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe 
enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. 

Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phe- 
nomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the 
species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, 



FEVERS. 495 

bjr the families which form groups of the races, and by certain condi- 
tions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a 
Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the 
foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. 
In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms : 

The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F., 
is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is mod- 
erate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. 
The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical ther- 
mometer inserted in the rectum. 

This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand 
placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft 
between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over 
the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nos- 
trils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, 
but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and 
irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy 
horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased 
to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 
16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever 
the horse usually has its appetite diminished, or it may have total 
loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast 
difference among horses in this regard. With the same amount of 
elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, 
while others, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay 
throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats 
or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires 
only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a 
bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which 
may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the 
hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage 
of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an out- 
break of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mu- 
cous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivae 
of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an 
acute one; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become 
of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset ; if the fever is attended with 
distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two 
or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflam- 
matory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which 
may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposi- 
tion of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, 
which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands 
are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the 
saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks 



496 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. 

dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excre- 
tion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces 
an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. 
If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material 
acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflamma- 
tory process, producing a severe diarrhea. 

The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely sup- 
pressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is 
] lapsed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and 
deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excre- 
tion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying 
off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. 

While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever 
are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold, 
or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition 
usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system. 

It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity 
of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode 
of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the 
horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is 
the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet 
with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to dimin- 
ish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause 
produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When fever is 
the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflamma- 
tion, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first 
improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have 
exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such 
as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary 
bronchitis, or the death of a limited amount of tissue (gangrene). 

In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there 
is a definite poison contained in the blood-vessel system, and carried 
to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar 
irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the tem- 
perature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. 

In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis becomes at times 
still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes 
complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple 
inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, 
and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two. 
is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon 
it depends the mode of treatment. 

Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more 
susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become compli- 
cations of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In 



FEVERS. 497 

fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, 
we have an increased current of more or less altered blood, flowing 
through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but 
an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into 
an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions be- 
come still more distinct when the fever is accompanied by a decided 
deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, 
and at the termination of severe pneumonias. 

Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of 
the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions, 
etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance. 
This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation 
or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers; altera- 
tions of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, 
or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of 
heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. 

The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the im- 
portant factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained 
by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and 
extraneous noises, and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of 
air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipy- 
retics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists 
in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the 
excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We 
therefore employ diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions 
from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the 
kidneys; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver 
and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the wash' 
material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses 
of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action 
at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength ; 
on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart 
that will soon weaken it. It is therefore irrational to further depress 
the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to 
strengthen the heart and to favor the elimination of the substance 
that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the 
body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This 
is obtained in some cases with advantage where the disease is but 
starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood, 
as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives, 
such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by 
setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby 
lessening is volume, without having the disadvantage of impoverish- 
ing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. Antipyretics given 
II. Doc. 70.1. 59-2 32 



498 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. 

by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful in many 
cases. 

When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, 
either in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, 
tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign 
element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called 
diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to 
have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies 
for various diseases are counted quinine, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, 
antipyrine, mercury, iodine, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aro- 
matics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are of known 
effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, 
like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, 
etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which 
are household remedies, are always useful, because they act on the 
excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, 
which arc to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected 
with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the 
disease. 

INFLUENZA. 

[Synonyms: Pinkeye, typhoid fever, epizootp, epihippic fever, hepatic fever, 
bilious fever, etc.: fievre typhoide, grippe, French; pferdestaube, German; 
gastro-enteritis of Vatel and d'Arboval; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel; typhus 
of I >elafond.] 

Definition. — Influenza is a contagious and infectious specific fever 
of the horse, ass. and mule, with alterations of the Mood, stupefac- 
tion of the brain and nervous system, great depression of the vital 
forces, and frequent inflammatory complications of the important 
vascular organs, especially of the lung-, intestines, brain, and laminae 
of the feet. One attack usually protects the animal from future 
one- of the same disease, but not always. An apparent complete 
recovery is sometimes followed by serious sequela* of the nervous and 
blood-vessel systems. The disease is very apt, under certain condi- 
tions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, to assume an epi- 
zootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as. 
at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, etc. 

The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Rusius in 
1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing 
great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district. 
Later, in L648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and 
spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711. under the name of " epi- 
demica equorum" it followed the tracks of the great armies all over 
Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while the rinder- 
pest was scourging the cattle of the same region-. The two diseases 
were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the 



INTLUENZxl. 499 

day, allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at 
the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British 
Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern 
counties of England, in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758, 
Robert Wlrytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of 
Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century 
a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of 
Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present 
century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for 
it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in 
North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe 
form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from 
Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and west- 
ward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities, 
selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially sus- 
ceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and 
uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an en- 
zootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It as- 
sumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and com- 
merce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are 
exposed to its contagion. 

Etiology. — As one attack is self-protective, numbers of old horses, 
having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; 
but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five 
years of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the 
older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. 
Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the 
farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to 
pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected 
railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp stables of dealers in 
our large cities. Want of training is a predisposing cause. Overfed, 
fat, yoimg horses which have just come through the sales stables are 
much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a 
few months of steady work. 

Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct 
cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of 
influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in 
old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a " stall miasm." The at- 
mosphere is the most common carrier of the infection from sick ani- 
mals to healthy ones, and through it may be carried for a considerable 
distance. The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and 
droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a 
considerable time, and if these are removed to other localities it may 
be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who 
have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The 



500 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus 
and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a 
distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in L881, in regard to the con- 
tagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found thai dur- 
ing a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of horses suffering 
from influenza into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy. 
the infection took place in what at fir-t seemed to be a most irregular 
manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation 
and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments 
showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it 
will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures 
of ventilation to other- in the neighborhood. The writer has seen 
case- that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack 
animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable 
were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too 
frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will all hold 
the contagion for some days, if not weeks, and communicate it to 
susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. A four-year- 
old colt, belonging to the writer, stood at the open door of a stable 
where two cases of influenza had developed the day before, fully 40 
feel from the stall, for about ten minutes on two successive mornings, 
and in six day- developed the disease. On the morning when the 
trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a 
dozen horses being treated for various diseases, but was immediately 
isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had con- 
tracted the disease. 

Symptoms. — After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection 
a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during 
which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is 
visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be in- 
tense or they may be so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but 
the latter condition frequently expose- the animal to use and to the 
danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have 
happened had the animal been left quietly in its stall in place of 
being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The 
disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alteration- 
only of the blood, or it may become at any period complicated by 
local inflammatory (roubles, the gravity of which i- augmented by 
developing in an animal with an impoverished blood and already 
irritated and rapid circulation and defective nutritive and reparative 
function-. 

The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which 
become- inteii-e within a very short period. The animal becomes 
dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects: stands with its head 
down, and not back on the halter as in serious Lung diseases. It has 



INFLUENZA. 501 

chills of the flanks, the muscles of the croup, and the muscles of the 
shoulders, or of the entire body, lasting from fifteen to thirty min- 
utes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a 
severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and 
stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and 
105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or 
eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its 
head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the 
surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes 
rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with ex- 
cessive lachrymation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus 
of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in its course. The 
respiration becomes accelerated to twenty-five or thirty in a minute, 
and the pulse is quickened to seventy, eighty, or even one hundred, 
moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of mus- 
cular force ; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There 
is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin, 
so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention 
of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of 
coordination of all of the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, 
sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely abolished. The visible 
mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it is known as 
the pinkeye, and the mouth and the natural openings become of a 
deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially 
noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any 
other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some 
outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from 
the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood 
is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it be- 
comes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution 
or total loss of appetite with an excessive thirst, but in many cases 
in cold-blooded horses the animal may retain a certain amount of 
appetite, eating slowly at its hay, oats, or other feed. There is some 
irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract as shown 
by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares 
are apt to abort. 

We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the sub- 
cutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and 
of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration 
is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the 
skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals 
after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached 
its maximum of 105° or 100° F. in from twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period 
of from three to four days without so much variation between morn- 



502 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

bag and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other seri- 
ous diseases of the Lungs. At the termination of the specific course of 
the disease, which is generally from six to ten days, the fever abates, 
the swelling of the Legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the ap- 
petite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the mucous mem- 
branes lose their yellowish color, which they attain SO rapidly at the 
commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly 
to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the 
large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease, 
a Loss which frequently reaches SO, 50, or even 75 pounds each twenty- 
four hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is 
a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible 
by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been 
marked, it may he followed by a troublesome diarrhea. 

Terminations. — The termination of simple influenza may he death 
by extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action: from excessive 
coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poison- 
ous effects of the debris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the 
toxin of the disease: to an asphyxia, following congestion of the 
lungs: or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of 
the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid con- 
valescence: or. in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course 
of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose 
gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic 
diseases. 

Complications. — The complications are congestions, followed by 
inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they 
are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular 
Lamina; of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding 
influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the 
determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year, 
and in certain epizootics, we tind 10 and 50 per cent or even a greater 
percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the 
intestines: at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find 
the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the 
lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are com- 
plicated by troubles of the other organs: inflammatory changes of 
the brain, of the lamina?, more rarely commence in epizootic form, 
but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all 
epizootics* 

Exciting cause-, are important factors in complicating individual 
cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions either during enzo- 
otics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as 
they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find 
the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon 



INFLUENZA. 503 

than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already ele- 
vated, with the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity 
into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their 
contractility, with a congestion of all of the vascular organs already 
established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the con- 
gestion one step further and produce inflammation. 

Complication of the intestines. — "When any cause acts as an irritant 
to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may 
produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may 
be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers 
to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by 
a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially 
any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active reme- 
dies; the taking of indigestible food, or of food in too great quantities, 
or food altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; 
the swallowing of too cold water; or an}' other irritant may cause 
congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal 
paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly; it 
looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, 
not with violence, but with care for itself , perfectly protecting the sur- 
face of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided con- 
stipation; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a 
viscous varnish or even with false membranes. In from thirty-six 
to forty hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimen- 
tary discharge becomes mixed with a seromucous exudation, which is 
followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal be- 
comes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing 
the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of 
fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes 
gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher. 
If a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the dis- 
charge becomes arrested in from five to ten days and a rapid recovery 
takes place. 

Complicatloji of the lungs. — If at any time during the course of the 
fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or in any other 
way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In 
the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the 
fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or 
apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is 
soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumo- 
nia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from 
an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. 
The animal commences to breathe heavily, which becomes distinctly 
visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and 
frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The res- 



504 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

pirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the 
temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid. 
and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, l>ut the previous 

poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the ti-sues that it 
never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneu- 
monia. 

On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed 
areas; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubu- 
lar murmur is heard. The crepitant rales and tubular murmurs of 
pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is 
peripheral, hut in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed 
portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and 
are sometime- deep seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory 
symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms 
of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered 
more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at 
fust hacky and aborted: later, more full and moist. There is dis- 
charge from the nostrils, which may he mucopurulent, purulent, or 
hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge 
may he -- rusty." due to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the 
blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead 
of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of 
the complication the animal may he subject to chills, which may again 
occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfa- 
vorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene 
occurs ii is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of tempera- 
ture, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a 
fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in 
gangrene complicating other diseases. 

Complication of the brain. — At any time during the course of the 
disease congestion of the brain may occur; at an early period if the 
fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more 
frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been 
stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the 
stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it be- 
comes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose 
and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens 
itself. It may become more violent, and rear and plunge. If dis- 
turbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright 
light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with it< hind feet, but 
is not definite in (ixino- the object which it is resisting, which is a 
diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders 
the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fas- 
tened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle 



INFLUENZA. 505 

at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction. 
The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition 
in one eye and the opposite in the other. 

The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in 
which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against 
the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of 
the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention will be paid to the sur- 
rounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of 
the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are dimin- 
ished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of 
violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of 
coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of 
the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur 
in the ungovernable attacks of violence. 

Complication of the feet. — -The feet are the organs which are next 
in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place 
in the lamina? (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied 
animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet, and 
assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet 
alone are affected they are carried forward until they rest on the heels, 
and if the hind feet are affected all of the feet are carried forward, 
resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as 
possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the 
pain is not felt, and little or no alternation of the position of the 
animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a 
given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized. 

Pleurisy. — This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is 
ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small 
respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the 
legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on 
either side of the chest and an absence of respiratory murmur at the 
lower part. If it is severe there may be an effusion filling one-fourth 
to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from thirty-six to forty-eight 
hours. 

Pericarditis is an occasional complication of influenza. It is 
ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature; the pulse becomes 
rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become in- 
distinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the 
jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and 
rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked, 
or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure. 

Peritonitis, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and 
covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The gen- 
eral symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis. 



50T) DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side 
of llit' flanks and belly; distention of the latter, and sometimes the 
formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation. 

Other occasional complications arc nephritis, hepatitis, inflamma- 
tion of the flexor tendons and rupture of.them. and abscesses. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued 
fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma: the 
rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the 
mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the geni- 
tals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis 
of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are 
produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza 
the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden 
by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible to 
pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by 
diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of 
respiration points to a complication of the lungs, but, as we have 
-ecu in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions 
are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of 
the feet, or founder, complicating influenza is frequently not shown 
on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal, 
which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the 
hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface. 

The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence 
which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening 
period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this 
complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the 
horse. In both Ave have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous 
membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs 
and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only 
by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola, 
and scalma we have an intense red, rosy coloration of the mucous 
membranes, full, tense pulse, and, although in these diseases we may 
have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe 
cases which have lasted for some days. In influenza we have no evi- 
dence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the 
Other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctiva' of the eyes. 

Tn severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma, 
dark yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of 
the under surface of the belly and legs; but in pneumonia we have the 
history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic 
type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for sev- 
eral days; while in influenza we have the history of characteristic 
symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty 
of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without 



INFLUENZA. 507 

the history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of 
several days' standing-, complicated by pneumonia, from a case of 
severe jmeumonia of five to six days' standing, but from a prognostic 
point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. 
The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have 
influenza may aid in the diagnosis. 

Prognosis. — Influenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its 
numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a compara- 
tively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases. 
In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another 
preponderate; in such instances the rate of mortality is much 
increased. 

Alterations. — The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the di- 
gestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of 
the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyers' patches near I he 
ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained, 
and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a con- 
gested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of 
the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in 
the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues. 

Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications. 
If the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their 
intimate nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ 
somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed 
in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and lami- 
nitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflam- 
mation of the brain. 

Treatment. — While the appetite remains the patient should have a 
moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran ; or even a little 
fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is 
not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse 
shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing food, and he may be 
tempted with any food of good quality that he relishes. The sick 
horse should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other 
horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished, 
allowed freety. To reduce the temperature, the safest simple plan is 
to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene 
may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of 
essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine, 
and hot water, after which the animal must be immediately dried and 
blanketed, serve to waken the animal up from the stupor and relieve 
the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially 
indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or 
of the brain is threatened. Quinine and salic3 r lic acid in 1-dram 
doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of quinine 



508 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

in some cases increases the after depression. Iodide of potash re- 
duce- tin- excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby 
reduces the tern pern i ure : again, this drug in moderate quantities is 
a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the 
elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber's 
-alts and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the 
digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. 

In case- of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis 
c.i n 1).' used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when con- 
valescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale 
in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants; to these may be added 
1-drain doses of turpentine. 

In complication of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most 
frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics; diarrhea is also 
relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and 
drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small 
doses of laudanum. 

In complication of the lungs iodide of potash and digitalis are most 
frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease 

l!-e| f. 

Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat, 
li is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory 
changes have gone on for some day-. If recognized at once, local 
bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the ani- 
mal will permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the 
stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one 
foot lifted for local treatment, and the only treatment consists in local 
bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices. 

During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for 
some little time, but the greatest care must be u<0(\, while furnishing 
the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible food, not to 
overload the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent 
diarrhea. Special care must be taken for some weeks not to expose 
the animal to cold. 

AlTli: EFFECTS OF INFLUENZA. 

Anasarca, or fubpura hemorrhagica. — A previous attack of influ- 
enza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears 
most frequently a few weeks after convalescence is established. It 
occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid 
convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it doe- in those 
which have made a slower recovery. 

Anasarca commence- by symptoms which are excessively variable. 
The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal's 
body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and 
gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of loca- 



ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 509 

tion, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complica- 
tions may completely mask the original trouble. 

In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or 
several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body — on the fore- 
arm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head. 
The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg; not hot, little sen- 
sitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the sur- 
rounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they 
coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling up of the legs, legs and 
belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the char- 
acteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a 
cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechia?, 
which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color. 
Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on 
the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the 
frsenum. If the external swelling has been on the head, the pete- 
chia? of the mucous membranes are apt to be more numerous and to 
coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined 
to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the 
legs, or be annoyed by the awkward swollen head, which at times may 
be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than 
that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains nor- 
mal ; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker ; the respira- 
tion is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the 
caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal 
is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, 
apparently in perfect health. 

In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer 
lesist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin 
which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which 
loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some 
cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots 
which are suppurating. In the nasal fossa? the hemorrhagic spots 
have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood 
to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh. 
We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the 
lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The ther- 
mometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the 
pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usu- 
ally remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may 
have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F. 

Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, 
but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the 
surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorp- 
tion of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may sup- 



510 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

purate or slough more or less over the areas <>!' greatest tension or 
where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about 
tlie head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breath- 
ing. Internal edema may oecur in the throat, Lungs, or intestines. 
Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may resuli from anasarca. 

Terminations. — The simple form of the disease mo-t frequently 
terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth (lav by resolution or ab- 
sorption of tin' effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or 
without diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times ca- 
pricious. 

Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of 
the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the Lungs is almost 
invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia. Metastasis to the in 
tine-; may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. 

Excessive suppuration. Lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes <»i' a 
data] termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again pro- 
duced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the 
head. 

Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perfora- 
tion of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia 
terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. 

Alterations. — The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly 
simple: the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the 
liber- of the conned ive tis>ue are idled with serum, and the coagulable 
portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in 
consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a 
sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in 
the head, these are found directed and separated from each other 
like those of a hog's head by the masse.-, of fat. The surface of the 
shin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently 
there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous mem- 
brane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots, 
sometimes red. more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with 
eaeh other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish 
zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines has oc- 
curred, the membrane is found four or Jive times its normal thickness, 
reddish in color, with hemorrhages on tie 1 free surface. Edema of 
the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alteration-, 
vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions 
of asphyxia; externally avc find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous 
spot- and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic 
cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis. 
Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of 



ANASARCA, OR PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. 511 

septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered 
in anasarca. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made 
from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, 
while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy 
are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. 
The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard, 
and pelletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of 
excessive swelling of the head in anasarca, there may occur an ex- 
tensive serofibrinous exudation from the mucous membranes of the 
nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a east of the nasal fossse, 
never having the appearance or typical oity character which it has 
in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands 
in anasarca does not produce the hard, indurated character which is 
found in farcy. 

Prognosis. — While anasarca is not an excessively fatal disease, the 
prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a 
simple course and terminate favorably at the end of eight or ten 
days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks 
for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis 
much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia. 
Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account 
of the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy. 
Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis 
is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual grav- 
ity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject. 

Treatment. — The treatment of anasarca may be as variable as are 
the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations 
and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. 

Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat 
and hay tea, milk, eggs — anything which the stomach or rectum can 
be coaxed to take care of — must be employed to give the nutriment, 
which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues, 
and they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their 
proper caliber. 

Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate 
the emunctories, so that they shall carry off the large amount of the 
products of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions 
of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small repeated doses, 
and the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity, 
and the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful. 
Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants 
and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves 
the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diu- 



512 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

retic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount 
of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea 
are two of the diffusible stimulant-- which are too much neglected in 
veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment in 
anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave 
disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sul- 
phuric acid and hydrochloric acid are perhaps the best examples of 
a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be 
employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of 
iron, copper, etc.. are useful as digestive tonics: I doubt if they have 
any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid, 
etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodide of potash in 
small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive 
for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treat- 
ment are diluted Lugol's solution injected into the trachea, anti- 
streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the 
circulation. Xo one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent 
to apply these remedies. 

Externally. — Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when 
thi' swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an 
extreme of temperature — either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot 
water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be 
added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaces, 
suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the 
wash. 

In cases (d' excessive -welling, especially of the head, mechanical 
relief may be required. Punctures of the part should be made with 
the hot iron even in country practice, as no other disease so predis- 
poses to septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threat- 
ened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of 
dyspnea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first 
pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster 
should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will 
draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to 
the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system 
is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The 
organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; the local 
inflammation produced by it favor- absorption of the exudation. The 
objection to the use of blisters is their 'more severe action and the 
danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complica- 
tion, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with 
little hope of a good re-nit. 

After recovery the animal regains it- ordinary health, and there is 
no predisposition to a return of the disease. 



GENERAL DISEASES. 513 

STRANGLES. 
[Synonyms: Distemper, colt-ill, cartarrhal fever, one form of shipping fever, 

Fehris pyogenica. ] 

Definition. — Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, 
and ass; seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving 
an animal which has had one attack protected from future trouble of 
the same kind. It appears as a fever, lasting for a few days, with 
formation of matter, or pus, in the air tubes and lungs, and fre- 
quently the formation of abscesses in various parts of the body, both 
near the surface and in the internal organs. It usually leaves the 
animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was 
before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the devel- 
opment of deep-seated abscesses, which may prove fatal. 

Causes. — The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with 
an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact 
with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the 
atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many 
predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to 
contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the 
popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later 
periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, 
and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an 
immunity from previous attacks. At 3, 4, or 5 years of age the colt, 
which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far 
from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is 
first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be 
exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses 
suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to 
contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway 
cars to dealers" stables, equally unclean, where it meets many oppor- 
tunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for 
heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, 
with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be 
the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and 
at last it succumbs. 

The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth or the end 
of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at 
which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be ex- 
cessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the 
contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. 
Thoroughbred colts arc very susceptible, and frequently contract 
strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin. 
Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarety affected. 
Other animals are not subject to (his disea.se, but there is a certain 
analogy between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infec- 
II. Doc. 795, ",9-2 33 



514 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tion there is a period of incubation of tin- disease, lasting from two 
to Hour days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. 

Symptoms. — The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when 
placed in its stable i> somewhat dejected, paying hut moderate atten- 
tion to the various disturbing surroundings. It- appetite is somewhat 
diminished in many eases, while in Mime eases the animal eat- well 
throughout. Thirst is increased, bu1 not a great deal of water is 
taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the 
patient will dip its aose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allow- 
ing some of it to drip hack, and then stop, to return to it in a short 
time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times 
the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the lore quarters, 
or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling 
of the muscles and dryness of the skin. 

If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found red- 
dened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breath- 
bag may be slightly accelerated. At theendof a couple of days a cough 
is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This dis- 
charge is at first watery: it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in 
color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter 
and increases greatly in quantity. 

At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. 
The cough is ;;t first repeated and harsh, hut soon becomes softer and 
moist as the discharge increases. Again the cough varies according 
to the source of the discharge. f nr i n fight case- this may he only a 
catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may he from the throat, the wind- 
pipe, or the air tube- of the lun,u"s. or even from the lungs themselves. 
According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough 
will be similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or hmg fever 
caused by ordinary cold. 

Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the 
jaw. or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, swollen. 
somewhat hot ami tender, and finally becomes distinctly so. and an 
abscess is fell, or Inning broken itself the discharge is seen dripping 
from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostril- has 
fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains 
its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the func- 
tion of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swaHow. At the 
end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the 
throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has 
regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the 
disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable: they may 
continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no 
symptom may be -ecu beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a 
rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particu- 



STRANGLES. 515 

lar owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malig- 
nant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious 
disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the 
larynx and bronchi, if excessive, will produce violent, harsh coughing, 
which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of dis- 
charge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the 
nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects 
become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the 
lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe 
heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condi- 
tion marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat 
is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap 
with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing. 
This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some 
time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of 
the lungs (asphyxia). 

The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is 
not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes 
inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at 
the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may 
occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of 
the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued 
lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in 
the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the 
arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. 

During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to 
be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal 
organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. 

Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head 
wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the 
brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous dis- 
charge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum ; 
colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the forma- 
tion of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the 
mesentery. 

Pathology. — The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of 
the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in 
the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, 
and consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation 
of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if 
the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagu- 
lated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while 
suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the 
body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of 
blood, are found. 



516 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Treatment. — Ordinary light eases require but little treatment be- 
yond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and pro- 
tection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as 
lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the 
results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever i> excessive, the 
horse may receive small quantities of Glauber's salts (handful three 
times a day), as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in L-dram 
doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodide of potash, 
aconite, or quinine. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm 
water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna 
leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the 
mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. 

The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by bathing 
with warm water and flaxseed poultices, and as soon as there is any 
evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt 
action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irri- 
tating liniments should not be applied to the throat. When lung 
complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied 
to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins 
great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may 
bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not 
be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its 
strength. 

sgalma. 

The differentiation of the various diseases which have popularly 
been included under the terms of distemper and influenza up to a 
comparatively recent date has been so slow and so tardily accepted by 
the majority of practitioners that we have been subjected lo con- 
stantly seeing announced and heralded as news in the daily papers the 
appearance of some new disease. These new diseases of the populace 
and of the empiric are to us but the epizootic outbreak or the more 
severely manifested form of some ordinary contagious disease. 

There is, however, one of the contagious fevers of the horse which 
has constantly been confounded with other diseases, and which has 
not been separated from them in our English text-books. As this dis- 
ease has received no proper name in English, I shall use for it the 
name given by Professor Dieckerhoff, of Berlin, who first described it 
in the Adams Wochenschrift, XXIX. in 1885. 

Etymology. — The term " scalma " is derived from the old German 
word scalmo, scelmo, schelm, which indicates roguishness, or knavish- 
ness, as great nervous irritability, especially of the temper, is one of 
the characteristic, almost diagnostic, symptoms of this disease. The 
term "HeimtuckiscJie Krankheit" signifying malicious, treacherous, 
or mischievous, is also employed in German for the same trouble. I 



SCALMA. 517 

am not aware of any name in English or French which has been 
applied to it. 

As I am opposed to employing in veterinary medicine any of the 
nomenclature of human medicine, except for identical, simple, and 
inflammatory diseases, or for intercommunicable contagious diseases, 
I will not offer the term " whooping cough " as a name, but I will sug- 
gest a certain similarity between the latter disease in man and scalma 
in the horse. 

Definition. — Scalma is a contagious and infectious febrile disease 
of the horse, with local lesions of the bronchi, trachea, and larynx, 
which is evidenced by cough. It is further characterized by great 
irritability of temper. It occurs as a stable plague; that is, in en- 
zootic form, with, however, great variations in the susceptibilitjr of 
the animals to contract it. It is rarely fatal except from compli- 
cations. 

Incubation. — The period of incubation is from six to seven days, 
but the disease may develop in two days after exposure or it may 
delay its appearance for ten days. It spreads through a stable slowly, 
developing at times in a horse placed in a stall where the previously 
sick one had stood, or it may pass next to an animal several stalls 
away. One attack is usually protective. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by fever, in which the 
acceleration of the pulse and respiration is in no way in accord with 
the great elevation of temperature. With the appearance of the 
fever is developed a diffuse bronchitis, which is, however, subacute 
both in its character and in its course. At times the trouble of the 
bronchi may extend to the trachea, larynx, pharynx, or even to the 
nasal fossae. 

In two or three days a trifling grayish albuminous discharge from 
the nostrils occurs, which continues, variable in quantity, for eight to 
fourteen days, or may even last for three weeks. The cough is short, 
rough, and painful, spasmodic in its occurrence and in character. 
The slight watery or slimy discharge may become more profuse, 
purulent, or even " rusty," if the bronchitis has extended to the neigh- 
boring structures. Pharyngeal discharge may take place. The res- 
piration is moderate and affected only during an excess of coughing, 
or in complicated cases. The pulse undergoes but little quickening. 
The temperature rises rapidly to 102. 2°, 104°, and in some cases even 
to 107.5° F. The latter temperature usually, but not always, indi- 
cates complication by pleurisy. In ordinary cases the temperature 
drops in two or three days after the appearance of the cough. The 
skin is dry and rough, with the hairs on end, but the horse appears 
as an animal out of condition rather than as a sick one. Emaciation 
may be rapid. The mucous membranes are moderately reddened. 



518 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

The appetite is diminished, but the animal chews constantly. Deglu- 
tition, either of food or water, is frequently the cause <>f spasms <>f 
coughing, ami these in turn seem to warn the animal against attempts 
at swallowing. On percussion no alteration of resonance is to be 
detected. On auscultation of the lungs mucous rale- are heard, with 
at times tubular breathing; the latter, however, we will study under 
the complications, as also the friction warning of pleurisy. Through- 
out the course of the disease we have still one constant and charac- 
teristic symptom — nervous irritability. With temperature of 104° to 
107 K. the horse still flinches to the touch on the loins; it stands 
frequently with the head up. and is on the alert for the entrance of 
anyone to the stall. The previously good-tempered and quiet horse 
will turn and bite, will strike with the hind legs, or at the first touch 
to the side, head, or throat will half rear and back into the corner 
of the box, or, breaking the halter, turn backward out of the stall. 

The course of the disease is from five to eight days, but the cough 
may continue for two or three weeks with variable elevation of tem- 
perature; As a stable plague the course is from two to three months. 
as the contagion is much more uncertain than in strangles or influ- 
enza. The termination is by resolution and recovery or by complica- 
tions. In resolution the temperature drops, the cough becomes less 
frequent and less spasmodic in character, the appetite returns, and no 
sign i- left of the disea>e except the fever mark on the hoof. 

Complications. — The complications are excessive spasms and pleu- 
risy. In the former the cough may be so violent as to convulse the 
whole animal, the leg- are spread and fixed, with the hind ones drawn 
slightly under the body. The head and neck are extended, with the 
muscles tense. The cough comes out by rapidly succeeding efforts, or 
with the first sound the larynx seems to close for a moment before the 
rest can follow. In two eases of my own the spasm has been so great 
that the animal has fallen to the ground. During these accesses the 
respiration becomes accelerated, and on auscultation of the trachea 
and lungs the tubular murmur of an apparent pneumonia can be 
heard. This false murmur, however, disappears at the end of the at- 
tack. In Uie case which fell to the ground the horse would lie for a 
moment or two absolutely motionless. (In the first 1 believed that he 
had broken his neck.) The rapid respiration was then followed by a 
long inspiration, the animal regained his feet, the respiration became 
almost normal, and the tubular murmur had disappeared. I have seen 
no fatal termination from this spasm of the pneumogastric but can 
readily believe that traumatisms resulting from such attacks might 
prove fatal, or that the spasm might continue long enough to produce 
asphyxia. The fata! complication is pleurisy. Thisoccurs when the 
horse has been kept at work after the development of the disease 



SCALMA. 519 

while suffering from a high fever, and is probably in no way specific, 
but the result of work on an animal with high temperature. The 
additional symptoms are those of an ordinary pleurisy. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis is based upon the elevation of the tem- 
perature without corresponding acceleration of the pulse and of the 
respirations; upon the retention of appetite and spinal reflex, with 
the great irritability of temper in the presence of a high temperature, 
and upon the spasmodic cough and auscultatory sounds of bronchitis 
with but trifling discharge. 

The diagnosis is made from edematous pneumonia by the absence 
of the yellow colorations, the absence of pneumonia, and the less con- 
tinuous high temperature ; from influenza by the absence of edema, of 
the ocher coloration, and of the typhoid symptoms; from strangles 
by want of enlargement of the lymphatics, absence of purulent dis- 
charge and abscesses; from variola by the nonappearance of pustules 
and enlarged lymphatics; from simple bronchitis, as the latter is 
sporadic, and in it great fever is accompanied by profuse discharge ; 
from rheumatic pleurisy and pleurodynia by the history in these of 
repeated attaeks and great temporary pain; from surgical fever by 
the absence of cause. 

Prognosis. — The prognosis is usually favorable. This disease en- 
tails only the loss of ten days' to three weeks' use of the animal, and 
leaves the subject with no complicating sequela\ In some cases I 
have seen the irritable disposition remain for a length of time, but in 
every case it has finally disappeared. As I have suggested, violent 
spasms might prove fatal. Pleurisy would render the prognosis 
serious, as the same disease would when occurring from simple causes. 

Treatment. — The treatment of a stable should be at once prophy- 
lactic. The infected animals should be removed, and complete disin- 
fection of the stalls and area should be made. The individual treat- 
ment is simple. The hygienic measures of cleanliness, fresh air with- 
out drafts, frequent rubbing, and tempting food should be thorough. 
The digestive tract is to be regulated by small doses of bicarbonate of 
soda, sulphate of soda, gentian, and tannic acid. The appetite is to 
be stimulated by drinks of cold breakfast tea and cow's milk. Anti- 
spasmodics are to be used when the cough is excessive. The best of 
these are camphor, belladonna, stramonium, and steaming with tur- 
pentine (turpentine 1 ounce, water half bucket). External frictions 
of alcohol and turpentine, with hot packs to the loins, will also 
afford relief. Quinine and salicylic acid may Ik- w^^} dining the ele- 
vation of temperature. Professor Dieckerhoff recommends tracheal 
injections in 1-ounce doses of the following solution: Acetate of 
aluminum, 1 per cent ; alum, one-half to 1 per cent ; bromide of 
potash, 1 to 2 per cent; water, 100 per cent. 



520 DISEASES OF Til E HOUSE. 

EDEMATOUS PNEUMONIA. 

I synonyms: Contagious pneumonia; adynamic pneumonia; hospital, or sta- 
ll].', pneumonia ; equine pleuro-pneumonia : influenza : pectoralis equorum ; pleuro- 
pneumonia; contagiosa equorum; brustseuche, German.] 

Definition. — This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older 
veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its 
nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the 
profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it. which 
is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this 
same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the 
staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles of the 
animal, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, 
with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of 
symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be 
separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its 
whole course. 

Edematous pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accom- 
panied by interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these 
organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a pro- 
found sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to 
cause death. It is sometimes attended by pleurisy, inflammation of 
the heart, or septic complications which also prove fatal. 

Etiology. — While, as an infectious disease, its original cause is due 
to a specific virus, there are many predisposing causes which act as 
important factors in aiding in its development. Such causes are any 
influences that lessen the general vigor. 

Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated 
stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the 
same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion, 
which may be retained for over a year. 

The virus i- but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather 
to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct 
currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Professor Dieckerhoff 
Found thai the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible through- 
out an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but 
lie also found that the contagion of edematous pneumonia is not 
transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the 
atmosphere. A brick wall s feet in height served, in one instance, 
to prevent the infection of other animals placed on the opposite side 
from .! horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the same side 
and separated from the focus of contagion only by open bars in the 
stall were infected and developed the disease in its typical form. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank. 
fibrinous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new 
symptoms as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of 



PNEUMONIA. 521 

local lesions which are found in the latter disease. All of the pneu- 
monias throughout the whole course of the trouble are less marked 
and less clearly defined. 

The symptoms may develop slowly or rapidly. If slowly, there is 
fever and the animal gives a rare cough which resembles that of a 
heavy horse affected with a slight chronic bronchitis; it becomes 
somewhat dejected and dull, at times somnolent, and has a dimin- 
ished appetite. This condition lasts for several days, or the disease 
may begin with high fever, and the symptoms described below are 
severe and develop in rapid sequence. The respiration increases to 
24, 30, or 30 to the minute, and a small, running, soft pulse attains a 
rhythm of 50, 70, or even more beats in the sixty seconds. The heart, 
however, contrary to the debilitated condition of the pulse, is found 
beating violently and tumultuously, like it does in anthrax and septic 
intoxication. The mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth and of 
the genital organs are found somewhat edematous, and they rapidly 
assume a dirty, saffron color, at times approaching an ocher, but dis- 
tinguishable from the similar coloration in influenza by the want of 
the luster belonging to the latter and by the muddy, dull tint, which 
is characteristic throughout the disease. 

Suddenly, without the preliminary rales which precede grave 
lesions of the lungs in other diseases, the blowing murmur of pneu- 
monia is heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however, 
much more distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and 
directly behind the shoulder on either side of the chest. In some cases 
the evidence of lung lesion can only be detected over the trachea. 
The lesions of the lungs may be scattered through both lungs, in- 
volving numerous small areas, or they maj^ be confined to and more 
or less fully occupy one or two lobes. Occasionally there is a general 
involvement of both lungs. The body temperature has now reached 
104° or 105° F., or in extreme cases even a degree higher. The de- 
bility of the animal is great without the stupefaction or evidence of 
cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave constitutional 
phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonias. The animal is sub- 
ject to occasional chills, and on movement staggers in its gait. The 
yellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale 
by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse 
may become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement 
and sounds being at the same time exaggerated. The animal loses 
flesh rapidly, and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of 
the belly, or of the internal organs may show themselves. 

Terminations. — These symptoms may gradually subside after five 
to eight days, with an improved appetite the inanition may cease and 
the animal commence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues; 
the pulse becomes stronger and the heart more regular and less tumul- 



522 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

tuous; the mucous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct 
eolor; the difficulty of respiration is removed, and the animal may 
make a recovery. When death occurs it is usually directly due to 
heart failure; in some eases it is caused by asphyxia, owing to the 
great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, rendering its fur- 
ther function impossible. 

Complications. — The pulmonary complications of edematous pneu- 
monia are secondary inflammatory or necrotic ehanges in the lungs 
themselves. Suppuration at times takes place in the bronchi and may 
extend to the bang tissue. Tn this case mucous rales develop which arc 
most distinctly heard over the trachea and on the -ides of the ehest 
directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous 
rales, to he heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge 
from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or subacute bronchitis. 
If the inflammation has heen of some standing, cavernous rales may 
he heard indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung 
tissue and the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute 
inflammatory process are not appreciable in the general condition of 
the animal, except to >till further weaken it and add to its debili- 
tated and emaciated cachexia. Gangrene sometimes occur-. A sud- 
den rise of the body temperature of 1° or 2 C . with a more enfeebled 
pulse and a still more tumultuous heart, develop simultaneously with 
the appearance of a discharge from the nostrils. This discharge is 
gray in color, serous or watery in consistency, mixed with the detritus 
of broken-down lung tissue, and sometime- contains clots of blood, or 
in more serious cases may he marked by a quantity of fluid blood 
Orom a hemorrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge i- fetid to the 
smell. The animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the Lungs 
mucous rales are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities may he found at 
any part of these organ-, and points of lobular pneumonia may he 
detected. 

A very serious complication is an inflammation of the heart mus- 
cle. This is shown by a very weak and rapid pulse, great prostration, 
some filling of the lungs. This complication nearly always terminates 
in death. Other complications which may he mentioned are inflam- 
mation of the kidney-, hlood poisoning, congestion of the brain, ami 
inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons of the legs. 

Diagnosis. — As fever is the first symptom of edematous pneumonia, 
it is useful during an outbreak of this disease to make daily tempera- 
ture measurements id' the exposed horses, so that the first indication 
i f disease may be discovered and the horse removed from contact with 
those that are sound. 

Prognosis. — The mortality in this disease may he as high as 25 per 
cent, hut it i- usually not more than K) per cent. If there is a special 
tendency t<> complications of some sort, the mortality i> increased. 



PNEUMONIA. 523 

Alterations. — At the time of death from edematous pneumonia we 
frequently find septic changes and the evidences of putrefaction. The 
solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high 
up around the root of the lungs and around the large bronchi, and is 
generally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the 
lungs are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of 
a gray yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readily. Matter 
is found in the air tubes which form gutters through the jellylike 
mass of the diseased lung. Abscesses from the size of a nut to larger 
masses may be found disseminated through the lungs. The blood is 
dark in color, fluid, or only clotted into soft, jelly like masses. 
Masses of gangrenous or dead black tissue may be present. 

Treatment: — Bleeding is not to be used because it would only still 
further weaken an already enfeebled animal; antimony or the 
alterants would increase the depression of a too depraved constitu- 
tion. There is in this disease no acute congestion of a particular 
organ to draw off by depletive measures, nor any violent blood 
current to be retarded, for fear of hypernutrition of any special part. 

Revulsives do good, as they excite the nervous system and awaken 
the torpor of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablish- 
ment of the functions. Mustard poultices may be applied over the 
belly and sides of the chest, as in other diseases, but caution must be 
used in the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers may result from 
their action on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous 
from the great tendency in this disease to septic complications. Re- 
located friction of the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by banda- 
ging and by rubbing the surface of the body with turpentine and 
alcohol, which is immediately to be dried by rough towels, will excite 
the circulation and stimulate the emunctories of the skin. 

Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease. 
Turpentine in 1-dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kid- 
neys to carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may 
disturb the already delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the 
latter danger, and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive 
system, if given with care in small doses. It is an antiputrid, and 
is especially indicated when septic complications and gangrene are 
present. The aromatics and bitter tonics are useful; gentian and tea 
in warm decoction form a useful menstruum for other remedies. 
Digitalis is a useful remedy. Strychnine and quinine may be given 
throughout almost the whole course of the disease. The various 
preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive sys- 
tem. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid which is of marked benefit in 
edematous pneumonia ; it should be given in small doses diluted in 
alcohol. 

Salicylic acid may be given in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours. 



524 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Ii is much used for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the tem- 
perature, and is of value in this disease in preventing the exudation 
into the tissue of the lungs. The alkaline-, as the sulphate and bicar- 
bonate of soda, the nitrate of potash, and very small doses of the iodide 
of potash, should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kid- 
neys, and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of 
the waste matter. 

Serums and antitoxins have been used in the treatment of this dis- 
ease, especially in Germany. The results appear to show some benefit 
in some instances, but none in others; altogether they are not espe- 
cially encouraging. 

The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many 
of the fevers the food has to be diminished in quantity and regulated 
in the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part 
of the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the in- 
flamed organs. In edematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the 
food that can possibly be digested and assimilated must be given. 
Choice must be made of the richest material which can be handled by 
the weakened stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good, 
sound hay should be chopped short and dampened or partly boiled; in 
the latter case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats 
may be preferred dry or in other cases will be taken better scalded; 
in most cases, however, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which 
can be added a little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat 
flour. Pure cow's milk, not too rich in fatty matter, can be given 
alone or with beaten eggs; frequently the horse will have to be coaxed 
with the milk diluted with several parts of water at first, but will 
soon learn to drink the pure milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or 
boiled are useful, and fresh clover in small quantities will frequently 
stimulate 1 the appetite. In other words, try various foods and com- 
binations and give the horse what he will eat. Throughout the 
course of the disease and during convalescence the greatest attention 
must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as to keep the glands 
of the skin in working order, and light, warm covering must be used 
to protect the animal from cold or drafts of air. 

HORSEPOX, OK EQUINE VARIOLA. 

[Synonyms: Variola equina; pustular grease; phlyctenoid herpes.] 

I>t-f!i<ttion. — Horsepox is a specific infectious fever of the horse 
attended by an eruption of pustules, or pocks, over any part of the 
skin or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the 
body, but chiefly, and often exclusively, upon the pasterns and Eet- 
Locks. The eruption may commence upon the lips, or about the nos- 
trils or eyes. 



HORSEPOX. 525 

This disease was described by the early Roman agricultural writers 
and by the veterinarians of the last century. It received its first im- 
portant notice from the great Jenner, who confounded it with grease 
in horses, since animals with this disease are very apt to have the 
eruption of variola appear on the fetlocks. lie saw these cases trans- 
mit the disease to cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and milk- 
maids who attended them, and furnish the latter with immunity from 
smallpox, which led to the discovery of vaccination. Horsepox is 
also frequently mistaken for the exanthemata attending some forms 
of venereal disease in horses. 

Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general 
course, complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a 
disease of the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of 
variola to any other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal 
transmissible to the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case 
of horsepox, develop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals 
is not so readily reinoculated into the horse with success. If it does 
develop, it produces the original disease. 

Causes. — The direct cause of horsepox is infection. A large num- 
ber of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease, as 
in the case of strangles, and this trouble, like almost all contagious 
diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune. The 
chief predisposing cause is young age. Old horses which have not 
been affected are less apt to become infected when exposed than 
younger ones. The exposure incident to shipment, through public 
stables, cars, etc., acts as a predisposing cause, as in the other infec- 
tious diseases. The period of final dentition is a time of the animal's 
life which renders it peculiarly susceptible. 

Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the at- 
mosphere for several hundred yards. The more common means of 
contagion is by direct contact or by means of fomites. Feed boxes 
and bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are proba- 
bly the most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in 
the majority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips and 
nostrils. Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this 
disease may be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits 
it to a number of brood mares and they in turn return to the farms 
where they are surrounded by young animals to whom they convey 
the contagion. The saddle and croup straps are frequent agents of 
infection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of 
the disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments 
or sponges. Trasbot recites a case in which a set of hobbles, which 
had been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on a 
horse for a quittor operation and transmitted the disease, which 
developed on the edges of the wound. 



526 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Symptoms. — There is a period of incubation, after an animal has 
been exposed, of from live to eighil days, during which there is no 
appreciable alteration in the health. This period is shorter in sum- 
mer than in winter. At the end of this time small nodes develop at 
the point of inocnlation and the animal becomes feverish. The hor-e 
IS dull and dejected, loses it- appetite, and has a rough dry coat with 
the haiis on end. There is moderate thirst. The respirations are 
somewhat quickened and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The 
body temperature is elevated, frequently reaching 104 or 105° F. 
within thirty-six or forty-eight hours from the appearance of the 
first symptoms. 

The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctiva', are of a 
bright posy red. In the lymphatic cold-blooded, and more common 
horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a com- 
paratively high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and 
even work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and over- 
heated, are apt to develop serious complications. 

At the end of from three ami a half to four days the eruption 
breaks out. the fever abates, and the general symptoms improve. 
The eruption in severe cases may be generalized; it may be confined 
to the softer skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the 
inside of the thighs, or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a 
wound or in the irritated skin of a pair of greasy heel-. It consists 
of a varying number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane, 
as in the nostrils or vagina, or on sofi impigmented -kin. appear red 
and feel at fins! like shot under the epidermis. These node- soften 
and show a yellowish spot in the center when they become pustules. 
The epidermis is dissolved and the matter escapes as a. viscid fluid 
at first citrine and later cloudy and purulent, which dries rapidly. 
forming scabs; i i' these fall off or are removed they leave a little shal- 
low concave nicer which heals in the course of five or six days. In the 
softer skin i i' pigmented the cicatrices are white and frequently remain 
so for about a year, when the pigment returns. The lips or genital 
organs of a colored horse, if covered with a number of small white 
-pot- about the size of a pea, will usually indicate that the animal has 
been affected with the horsepox. 

At time- the pustules may become conlluent and produce large 
superficial serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around 
the lip- or eyelids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heel-: 
in this case the part becomes swollen, hot. painful, and is covered 
with a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there i- frequently 
a secondary fever Lasting for a day or two. 

In severe case-, there may be a. suppurative adenitis, or inflamma- 
tion of the lymphatic glands which are \'n\ from the affected part. 
If the eruption is around the no-trils and lips, the glands between 



HOKSEPOX. 527 

the jaws (submaxillary) form abscesses as in a case of strangles; if 
the eruption is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses may form in the 
fold of the groin (inguinal). There may be so much tumefaction of 
the nostrils as to produce difficulty in breathing. 

Complications. — A case of horsepox may be attended with various 
complications of varying degrees of importance. Adenitis, or sup- 
puration of the glands, has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions 
irritate the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part 
against the manger or scratch it in other wa}-s, and thus produce 
troublesome ulcers, which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the 
mucous membrane of the nose causes severe coryza with purulent 
discharge. 

The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the 
lungs, developing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. If the animal is 
exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge the lungs with blood at 
the termination of the specific fever, just when the eruption is about 
to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In this case we, have 
a short, dry cough, labored breathing, the development of a secondary 
fever of some gravity, and all of the external symptoms of a pneu- 
monia. This pneumonia differs, however, from an ordinary pneu- 
monia in the symptoms furnished by the examination of the lungs 
themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue being affected 
the inflammation is disseminated in smaller spots over the entire 
lung. 

Diagnosis.- — The diagnosis of horsepox is to be based on the pres- 
ence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several 
days, and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the 
eruption is in the nasal cavities, marked by a considerable discharge 
and attended by submaxillary abscesses, it may be confounded with 
strangles. If the throat is affected it may be confounded with an 
angina (laryngitis or pharyngitis), but in the latter the local trouble 
precedes or is concomitant with the fever, while in the former the 
fever precedes the local trouble by several days. Variola may be 
confounded with bronchitis or pneumonia if complicated with these 
troubles mid the eruption is absent from the exterior, but it is of little 
moment, as the treatment for both will be much the same. When the 
eruption is in the neighborhood of the genital organs this disease lias 
been mistaken for the dourine. In variola the eruption is a temporary 
one; the nodes and pustules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid 
cicatrization unless continued in (lie vagina or on the penis by the 
rubbing of the walls and filth which accumulates; there are apt to be 
pustules at other parts of the body. In the venereal disease the local 
trouble commences as a papule and breaks into an ulcer without hav- 
ing formed a pustule. The ulcer has not the convex rosy appearance 
of that of the less serious discharge; the symptoms last for a longer 



528 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

period, by which time others aid in differentiating the two. In 
glanders the tubercle is hard. and. after breaking into an nicer, the 
indurated bottom remain--, grayish or dirty white in color, ragged, 
and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. There is no disposition to 
suppuration of the neighboring glands. In variola the rosy shallow 
nicer and healthy pus, with the acutely tumefied glands, should not 
he mistaken, at least after a day. I have seen acute glanders in mules 
which required a day's delay to differentiate from strangles; at that 
time the farcy buds appeared. 

Prognosis. — The average case of horsepox runs a course of dejec- 
tion, loss of appetite, and more or less fever for about four days, 
followed by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and 
as sound as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent, 
the ulcerations may act as irritants and render the animal unlit for 
use for several weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneu- 
monia in this disease are not of greater gravity than they are when 
occurring from other causes. The spots denuded of pigment left 
by the pustules on the lips and genitals may temporarily depreciate 
the value of the animal to a slight degree. 

Treatment. — As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the 
blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic type, active 
remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed 
on a low diet (little or no oats) — bran mashes, a moderate quantity 
(d* good, sound hay. a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxa- 
tives, and slop feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than 
bran or oatmeal. Water may be given as the animal desires it, 
but it should not be cold; if a half bucketful of water is kept in the 
manger, the horse will take but a few swallows at a time. One-dram 
doses of nitrate of potash or 1 -ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter 
are useful in the drinking water. If the fever is high, the anti- 
pyretics are indicated: Sulphate of quinine in 1-dram doses; iodide 
of potash in 1-dram doses; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves, 
of the aromatic herbs, or of English breakfast tea are useful in the 
later stages. If complications of the air passages or lungs are 
threatened, a large mustard poultice should be applied to tin' belly 
and sides of the chest. Oxide of zinc ointment should be used on 
confluent eruptions, and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to 
be touched with caustic. 

Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold 
drafts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be \\<^^\ 
on (he body and bandages on the legs. Afier convalescence is estab- 
lished, nutritious food of easy digestion and walking exercise are all 
that is needed, excepl perhaps a little Glauber's salts to prevent 
constipation. 

Prophylactic treatment. — When horsepox breaks out among a large 



ANTHRAX. 529 

number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a number of 
colts, it may be assumed that the greater majority will contract the 
disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be 
through with it at once. If the weather is moderate, all the animals 
which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce 
the disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election, 
and render the danger of complication a minimum one. For inocula- 
tion the discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected 
and inoculated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of 
the neck. 

ANTHRAX. 

[Synonyms: Carbuncle, splenic fever, splenic apoplexy, braxy (in sheep), 
etc.; sacer ignis, pustula maligna, anthrax, Latin; charbon, sang <1e rate, 
French; miltzbrand, German; carbone, carbonchio, fuoco tie St. Antonio, Italian; 
jastva, siberskaji jasica, Russian.] 

Definition. — Anthrax is a severe and usually fatal contagious dis- 
ease, characterized by chills, great depression and stupor of the ani- 
mal, and a profound alteration of the blood. It is caused by the 
entrance into the animal's body of a bacterium, known as the Bacillus 
anthracis, or its spores. 

Practically all animals are susceptible to anthrax. The herbivora 
are especially susceptible, in the following order: The sheep, the ox, 
and the horse. The guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other 
animals die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omniv- 
ora and carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as 
fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunately, in many cases, develop 
from it only local trouble, followed by recovery. 

Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world 
since the first written history Ave have of any of their diseases. In 
1709-1712 A. D. extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in Germany, 
Hungary, and Poland. In the first half of the present century it had 
become an extensively spread disease in Russia, Holland, and Eng- 
land, and for the last century has been gradually spreading in the 
Americas — more so in South America than here. In 1864, in the five 
governments of Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaroslaw, 
in Russia, over 10,000 horses and nearly 1,000 persons perished from 
the disease. 

Causes. — The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed 
entirely to climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and 
they are still recognized as predisposing factors in the development of 
the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks over any 
number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries during the 
warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy lands 
dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with light 
H. Doe. 795, 59-2 34 



530 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nourish- 
ing and preserving the virus. 

The direct cause of anthrax is always infection of a previously 
sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through 
various media which contain excretions or the debris from the body of 
a previously infected animal. 

The specific virus of anthrax was first discovered by Davaine in 
1851. He recognized in the blood of animals suffering from anthrax 
microscopic bodies in the form of little rods. It was not, however, 
till a quarter of a century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature 
of the bacillus, the mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship 
to anthrax as the sole cause of the disease. In the animal body the 
bacilli have a tendency to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and else- 
where, so that these organs are much more virulent than the muscles 
or less vascular tissues. When eliminated from the animal in tin- 
excretions, or when exposed to outside influences by the death of the 
animal and the disintegration of the tissues, the bodj r of the rod is 
destroyed and the spores only remain. These spores, which may be 
called the seeds of the bacilli, retain their vitality for a long period; 
they resist ordinary putrefaction; they are unchanged by moisture; 
and they are not affected by moderate heat. If scattered with the 
debris of a dead animal on the surface of the ground, they may remain 
around the roots of the grass in a pasture or may be washed to the 
nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in the body of an ani- 
mal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep into the ground, and 
in later years (in one proven case 17 years) be brought to the surface 
and infect other animals. They are frequently brought to the surface 
of the earth, having been swallowed by earthworms, in the bodies of 
which they have been found. 

This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a 
dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground 
in search of moisture ; it finds the spore which has been washed there 
in past years, swallows it, and afterwards brings it to the surface. 
The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remain- in 
it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain 
in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their 
vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the work- 
ing of the harness maker or the cobbler, and after the oiling of the 
completed Leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these 
products may be carried by the atmosphere. 

Infection of an animal takes place through inoculation or contact 
of the bacillus or it< spores with an abraded surface or mucous mem- 
brane on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat the 
rich pasturage of spring and early summer with impunity, but when 
grass becomes low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots 



ANTHRAX. 531 

around which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions 
the animals are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by 
contact with dried stubble and the dirt on the roots, which favors the 
introduction of the germs into the system. The virus may be intro- 
duced with food and enter the blood-vessel system from the stomach 
and intestines. If contained in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched 
pasture of late summer, the virus may be inhaled and be absorbed 
from the lining of the lungs. If contained in harness leather, it 
needs but an abrasion of the skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer 
the spore from the leather to the circulation of the animal. 

The writer saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from the use of 
a new horse-brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand 
inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first finger, and in 
twelve hours a " pustule " had formed and the arm had become 
infected. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of anthrax usually develop with ex- 
treme rapidity. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of pro- 
found stupor, attended by great muscular weakness. The feeble, 
indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe 
chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times 
colicky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ocher or bluish 
red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° or 
105° F. The breathing is increased to thirty or forty respirations in 
the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but while the arteries 
are soft and almost imperceptible, the heart beats can be felt and 
heard, violent and tumultuous. In some cases, when inoculation is 
through the skin, large subcutaneous swellings appear; these may 
involve a leg, a shoulder, one side of the body, or the neck or head. 
The swelling is at first hot and painful, but afterwards it becomes 
necrotic and sensation is lost. The symptoms last but two, three, or 
four days at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An 
examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which will not clot, and 
which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the 
bodies putrefy rapidly and bloat up ; the tissues are filled with gases, 
and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and 
frequently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the 
latter. The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs 
and tissues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are 
friable and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is especially 
marked in the heart. 

The black, uncoagulated, and incoagulable blood shows an iri- 
descent scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dis- 
solved by the ammonia produced by the decomposed tissues. The 
serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, 
which, when examined microscopically, is found to have the red 



532 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

globules crenated .and the leucocytes granular. A high power of the 
microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rodlike 
bodies of homogeneous texture with their brilliant spores. 
The Lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their 

natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen 
shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is 
found teeming with the virus. This organ is much enlarged and is 
quite friable. The mucous membranes of the intestines are congested 
and reddish brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places 
denuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic 
spots. The liver has a cooked appearance; the kidneys are congested 
and friable; the urine is red; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are 
congested, and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. 

Treatment. — The treatment of anthrax has little in it to encourage 
one. The curative treatment, for which almost every drug in the 
pharmacopoeia has been used, is practically without avail. 

The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of 
certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated 
during the months of August and September and had been oc- 
cupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It under- 
went, however, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the 
possibility of a prophylactic inoculation or vaccination which granted 
immunity from future attacks of the disease similar to that granted 
by the recovery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease. 

This treatment consists in the use of a vaccine which is made by the 
artificial cultivation of the virus of anthrax in broth and in the treat- 
ment of it by means of continued exposure to a high temperature for 
a certain length of time, which weakens the virus to such an extent 
that it is only capable of producing a very mild and not dangerous 
attack of anthrax in the animal in which it is inoculated, and thus 
protects the animal from inoculation of a stronger virus. The pro- 
duction of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the 
expense of the government and is furnished at a small cost to the 
farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made 
in private laboratories only. 

GLANDERS AND FARCY. 

[Synonyms: Glanders, farcy, our form of nana] rjlret : Malleus humid us. 
Equina nasalis, l-J<iui»<i apostematos, Latin; rote, rotzkrankheit, German; snot, 
verroting, Dutch; m<i<-<-i<>, ciamorro, Italian; muermo, Spanish; morve, farcin. 
French. I 

Definition. — Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and 
farcy are one and the same disease, differing only in that the firsl 
term is applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in 
the internal organs, especially in the nostrils, lungs, and air tubes, 




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GLANDERS AND FARCY. 533 

and that the second term is applied to it when the principal mani- 
festation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the 
animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms, 
while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external 
trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist, 
although they may not be evident. 

Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus Equus 
(the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog, 
the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with diffi- 
culty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirely immune. It 
runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal 
affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms, 
or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from 
which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied by a variable 
amount of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is sub- 
ject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, 
of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous con- 
nective tissue. 

History. — Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have 
definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek 
veterinarian in the army of Constantine the Great, described this dis- 
ease with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of 
its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who 
lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the 
name of Malleus humidus, a disease of the horse characterized by a 
nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recog- 
nized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, 
and recommended that all animals sick with the disease should be 
separated at once with the greatest care from the others, and should 
be pastured in separate fields for fear the other animals should become 
affected. 

In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an 
account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to 
each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He 
admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease 
from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention 
to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of conta- 
gion. He divided glanders into two forms — one malignant and con- 
tagious and the other benign — and he stated that there was always 
danger of infection. 

Garsault, in 1746, said that " as this disease is communicated very 
easily, and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of 
horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals 
infected with glanders should be destroyed." 

Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his " Elements of 



534 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

Hippiatary," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent 
disease. 

Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described a> prevailing in the 
great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time 
during the periods of all the wars of the last lew centuries. 

Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth 
century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had 
spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and 
immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown 
in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican war by the badly 
diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of 
the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men 
protested against the contagious character of this disease, and pre- 
vailed by their opinion to such an extent against the common opinion 
that several of the governments of Europe undertook a series of ex- 
periments to determine the right between the contesting parties. 

At the veterinary school at Alfort, and at the farm of Lamirault 
in France, several hundred horses which had passed examination as 
sound had placed among them glandered horses under various condi- 
tions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the con- 
tagious character of the disease. 

In 1881 Professor Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, 
assisted by Drs. Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experi- 
ments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. 
They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from 
horses, and succeeded in showing in 1883 that glanders is caused by 
a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of 
others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the 
specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loef- 
fler and Schuetz in Germany. 

When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of 
susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on 
the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find 
proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it 
exists in certain individuals, we will understand how in a section of 
country containing a number of glandered animals others can 8t em to 
contract and develop the disease without having apparently been 
exposed to contagion. 

Causes. — The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what 
form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recog- 
nize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of 
tlif specific virus of the disease. 

In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the 
work- of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the 



GLANDERS AND FARCY. 535 

disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as 
factors in the development of the malady. 

While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal 
of the genus Equus will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast 
difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders. 
We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the develop- 
ment of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is 
much more apt to be carried to sound animals under certain circum- 
stances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are 
susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these con- 
tract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it only develops 
as a local sore. 

In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, 
as is shown by the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inocu- 
lated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent 
glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result; 
again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater 
quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood 
of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in 
the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. 

The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, 
asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glan- 
dered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall or 
work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers 
which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the dis- 
charge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of 
the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, 
either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with food into the 
digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust. 

The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of 
the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected 
animal in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, 
clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the 
halter, and are thus carried to other animals. 

An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved 
from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one 
horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the 
spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized. 

Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we 
recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may 
affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that 
will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. 
An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for 
family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years, 
during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time 



536 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, 
whose only trouble was ;iu apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a 
huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork 

and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which 
the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute 
pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old 
nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years. 

In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse 
was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent 
veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a 
skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards 
it came into the hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough 
and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping 
and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in 
its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular 
light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having 
been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by 
a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. 
Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died. 
The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous 
nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase. 
more than a year lie fore. 

Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and 
the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common 
recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its 
fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals 
in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several 
months before. While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders 
is much less apt to contain many active bacilli than that from a case 
of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce 
the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an 
acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal 
infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease 
from which the virus was derived. 

The animals of the genus Equus — the horse, the ass, and the mule — 
are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in 
these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we 
do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period 
of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We 
rind that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character 
of the disease: in full-blooded fat horses of a sanguinary tempera- 
ment, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the 
lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease 
usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the 



GLANDERS AISTD FARCY. 537 

chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are 
apt to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated 
into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the 
latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal 
is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion 
of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often 
followed by the trouble in the chronic latent form. 

In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional 
disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more 
frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, re- 
maining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving 
a perfectly sound animal ; but while the local sore is continuing to 
ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of con- 
tagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to 
glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus 
spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and de- 
stroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemor- 
rhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, 
glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting 
the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer 
by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species 
glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inocula- 
tion ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected. 

While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Professor 
Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glan- 
dered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of 
kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which 
an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, 
including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nod- 
ules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia 
Zoological Garden died in ten days after being fed with the meat of a 
glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially sus- 
ceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are conven- 
ient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the 
glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations. 

The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs 
a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal 
tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding to- 
gether of the elements until their own pressure on each other cuts otf 
the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the 
form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we 
have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli 
into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot, 
which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory 
phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the re- 



538 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

suit of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time 
the virus is carried by moans of the blood vessels and lymphatic ves- 
sels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places 
and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the 
latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into 
action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body 
and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points 
of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the 
circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a 
horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders 
that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by 
the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on 
the legs, the disease is apt to develop on the exterior in the form of 
farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has 
its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use 
of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the 
disease in the respiratory tract. 

The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two 
forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and 
our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as 
acute, chronic, and latent, show 7 that the disease may assume several 
different phases. Without losing sight for a moment of the fact that 
all of these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their 
essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three 
classes — chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or 
without farcy. 

CHRONIC FARCY. 

Symptoms. — In farcy the symptoms commence by formation of 
little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe 
on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as 
farcy " buds " and farcy " buttons," are from the size of a bullet to 
the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first 
elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and in- 
fringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, 
which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with 
ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom 
and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent : in either 
case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the 
white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The 
discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge 
which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, 
but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The dis- 
charge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its 
surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive 
deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by 



CHRONIC FARCY. 539 

others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on 
the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy 
ulcers ma}' retain their specific form for a considerable time — days 
or even weeks — but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in char- 
acter and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface 
of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granula- 
tions, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned 
into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. 

The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, 
the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of 
the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of 
the body. 

We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neigh- 
borhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated 
and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to 
the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable 
time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy 
bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a 
characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out 
a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves. 

The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button, 
the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to 
these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, 
while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the 
diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, 
and when the ulcers are not characteristic. 

Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or 
other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms 
in glanders, and such a hemorrhage from the nostrils should always 
be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently de- 
velops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves — a 
short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from 
the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, 
and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few 
mucous rales. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one 
of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the 
cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as 
high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and 
renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the 
swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill up again on 
removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of 
the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing 
which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling 
is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the 
edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as 



540 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

in the last the swelling is coo] and not painful and the pitting on 
pressure remains for sometime after the latter is withdrawn. It 

is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease com- 
mences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends 
up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The 
swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length 
in a single night or within a very short period. When greasy heels 
aie complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much 
resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently fol- 
lowed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over it- surface. 
In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and 
sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. 
The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration, 
which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. 

( Jhronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, 
but sometimes occurs. 

CHEONIC GLANDERS. 

Symptom*. — In chronic glanders we find the same train of inflam- 
matory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic 
farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are located. 
In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot, 
to that of a small pea. which forms in the mucous membranes of the 
respiratory tract. This may be just inside of the wings of the nos- 
trils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the 
other and be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities 
on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larynx itself or on the 
surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. 

The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new con- 
nective tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the yellow spots break 
and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has 
a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. 
This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar 
to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the 
discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, 
causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the 
chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers, 
we may have them causing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian 
membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific 
discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the 
discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory disease-. 

The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation 
of the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep 
inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for 
the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly 
becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an 



GLANDERS. 541 

almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and 
nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high up on the 
inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is 
not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is 
not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues 
found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory 
troubles. 

These glands bear a great resemblance to the hard, indurated glands 
which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses; 
but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel 
which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated 
cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands 
together. 

The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre, 
the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules 
in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount 
of eruption which they cause, Ave may find a cough which resembles 
that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, 
according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we 
find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the 
hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, 
and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles. 

On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, 
whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which 
remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the 
other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlarge- 
ment of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they 
are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute at- 
tacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders 
and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any amount of fever, 
but does have a general depraved appearance; it loses flesh and be- 
comes hidebound ; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. 
There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any 
chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it 
certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal sus- 
picious to the eye of the expert veterinarian, while without the pres- 
ence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based 
his opinion. 

ACUTE GLANDERS. 

Symptoms. — In the acute form of glanders we find the symp- 
toms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glan- 
ders in a more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak 
of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into 
chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. 
There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and 



542 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings 
occiii- which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into 
ulcer-: we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lym- 
]>hat ics. 

Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, 
and the swelling of the testicles are apt to precede an acute eruption 
of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has 
difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes 
rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes 
elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F. 

With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance 
and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneu- 
monia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous 
rales over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular mur- 
murs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubu- 
lar murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides 
of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. 

Where there is doubt as to the diagnosis the mallein or the inocula- 
tion test may be employed. The mallein test is made by injecting 
mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture of glanders bacilli) be- 
neath the skin. If the horse has glanders there results a febrile 
reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If the horse does 
not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most, it produces a 
slight swelling only at the point of injection. The inoculation test 
consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal (usually a guinea 
pig) with some of the suspected discharge from the nose or a farcy 
nicer. If the material is properly used, and if it contains bacilli of 
glanders, the experimental animal will develop the disease. Neither 
of these tests should be put into use except by a competent veteri- 
narian. 

The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneu- 
monia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered through 
the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking 
place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some 
cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the 
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse 
discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific char- 
acter of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, 
the submaxillary space may for a few days so swell as to resemble the 
edematous inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis. 
Tlii- condition is especially apt to be marked in an acute outbreak of 
glanders in a drove of mules. 

Cases of chronic farcy and glandcr-. if not destroyed, may live in a 
depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and 
anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some* sudden exposure to 



GLANDERS. 



543 



cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory 
trouble which starts up the latent disease and the animal has acute 
glanders. 

In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually termi- 
nates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms 
may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the 
temperature loAvers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving 
small indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent 
health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but 
a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During 
the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities 
frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the 
forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and cause 
abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible 
symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case 
of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic 
glanders and chronic farcy, are apt to be affected with emphysema of 
the lungs or the heaves, and to have a chronic cough. In this condi- 
tion they may continue for a long period, serving as dangerous sources 
of contagion, the more so because the slight amount of discharge does 
not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge 
does in the more acute cases. 

At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been de- 
stroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various 
lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, 
we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior 
throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found 
in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflam- 
mation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive altera- 
tions in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both of 
these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause 
of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. 

In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame 
horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of 
the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died 
immediately after an attack of a primary acute case of glanders, we 
find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the 
animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in 
cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the 
external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of 
nodules — small, hard, indurated nodes — of new connective tissue to be 
found in the lungs. When these have existed for some time we may 
find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain 
the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefi- 
nite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the 



544 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that 
is, an inflammatory process wakens up their vitality and produces a 
reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering 
from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but 
during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the 
blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days. 

/'/■. at /in nt. — Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia 
has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic sur- 
roundings, good food, with alteratives and tonics, frequently amelio- 
rate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal 
would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound ani- 
mal. But while in this case the number of nodules of the lungs, 
which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient 
disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the exam- 
iner, they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely, with the 
constant possibility of a return of acute symptoms. 

It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the 
infection is slight, but it will not yet do to depend upon this except- 
ing under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good 
care, good food, and good surroundings and little work, an animal 
affected with glanders may live for months or even years in an ap- 
parent state of perfect health, but with the first deprivation of food, 
with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with 
the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other 
causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the 
trouble again in an acute form. 

In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with 
glanders have been known to work for years and die from other 
causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but allow- 
ing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and 
the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable 
attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected 
with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein 
tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders. 

In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States 
in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the 
prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veteri- 
narian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow 
indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal 
is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact arc 
thoroughly disinfected. When the attendants have attempted to 
hide the procure of the disease in a community, punishment is meted 
to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. 
Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but 
these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which 



RABIES. 545 

they should be. The disease is very prevalent in Massachusetts, in 
New York City, and in some of the Western States. It has been al- 
most completely eradicated from Pennsylvania and several other 
States. 

RABIES IN THE HORSE. 

[Synonyms: Hydrophobia, madness ; lyssa, Greek ; rage, French ; wuthJcrank- 

licit, German. J 

Definition. — Rabies is a contagious disease which is usually trans- 
mitted by a bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the 
saliva of an affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in 
other ways. It is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the 
nervous system, and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied 
by lesions, inflammation, and degeneration in the central nervous 
system. It is a disease that is most common in the dog, but is trans- 
mitted to the horse, either from dogs or from any other animal 
affected w T ith it. (See also remarks on page 222.) 

As a disease of the horse it is useless to enter into the etiology fur- 
ther than to state that in this animal it is invariably the result of the 
bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog. 

Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more con- 
troversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have 
even doubted the existence of the disease. Many medical men have 
claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience, however, of 
ages has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of 
cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only 
believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of 
a case from which the virus has been transmitted. M. Pasteur has 
further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a 
virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially 
in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the ante- 
rior part of the spinal column. M. Pasteur has further shown that 
that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the 
exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it 
for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left sur- 
rounded by carbonic acid; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent 
at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by sub- 
stances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradually 
lose its virulence and become iiiOi V ensive in about fifteen days. He 
has further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will 
prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has 
formulated his method of proplvylactic treatment. This treatment 
consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter 
containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed 
to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 35 



54G DISEASES 0¥ THE E0RS1 . 

days, nniil the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any 
unprotected animal can l>c inoculated with impunity. A curious 
result of the experiments of M. Pasteur is that an animal which has 
first been inoculated with a virus of i'nll strength can be protected 
by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of 
increasing strength. 

Symptoms. — From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid 
dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses 
before the development of any symptoms. This time may he eight 
days or it may he several months; it is usually about four week-. 
The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This 
wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until 
the horse rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes 
irritable and vicious. It i- especially susceptible to moving object-: 
excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other dis- 
turbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently 
see- imaginary objects: the slightest noise is exaggerated into threat- 
ening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal. 
especially a doe-, i- interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike 
and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a 
moment to be confounded with the fury of the same 1 animal suffering 
from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies 
there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the 
animal will make, which is not found in the 1 other diseases. Between 
the attack's of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period. 
The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour, 
the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only 
developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable. 
In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original 
wound; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings; it 
will bite at the woodwork' and surrounding objects in the stable. If 
i he animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and fall- t<> 
the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the 
majority of cases, in its excesses of violence, it does physical injury to 
itself. It breaks its jaw- in biting at the manger or fracture- other 
bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or 
internal injuries. At time- throughout the course of the disease there 
is an excessive sensibility of the skin which, if irritated by the touch, 
will bring on attacks of violence. The animal may have appetite and 
ire water throughout the course of the disease, but on attempting 
to -wallow ha- a spasm of the throat, which renders tie 1 act impossible. 
This latter condition, which i< common in all rabid animals, has given 
the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). 

Iii a case under the care of the writer a horse, four week'- after 
being bitten on the forearm by a rabid doe-, developed local irritation 



RABIES. 547 

in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This 
was healed by local treatment in ten days and the horse was kept 
under surveillance for over a month. On the advice of another prac- 
titioner the horse was taken home and put to work, and within three 
days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. 

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from 
the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first, by the 
history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other 
means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part 
of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, ani- 
mals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopen- 
ing of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor 
in diagnosis. 

Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the cor- 
rectness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal. 

Treatment. — No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All 
of the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromide of pot- 
ash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The 
prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on 
human beings, and has experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but 
would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite 
exceptional. 



SURRA.- 

By Ch. Wabdeix Stii.ks. Ph. D., 

Consulting Zoologist, Bureau of Animal Industry; Zoologist, United States 
Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service. 

Surra is not known to occur in the United States, bul it is more or 
less common in the Philippine Islands and India. Il is caused by a 
microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as Trypanosoma 
Evansi, 20 to 30 n long by 1 to 2 : fi broad, which lives in the blood and 
destroys the red-blood corpuscles. In general, the disease is very 
similar to, and belongs in the same general class with, tsetse-fly dis- 
ease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas of South America. 

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 

Surra is a wet-weather disease, occurring chiefly during or imme- 
diately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations. 

ANIMALS AFFECTED. 

Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but il may occur 
in kerabau, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been trans- 
mitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and 
monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frog-, etc.). or fish are 

known to sutler from it. It attacks both male and female animals. 
young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray 
mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds 
and color. 

LETHALITY — DURATION. 

Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal dis- 
ease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a 
definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually 
with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary some- 
what: in experimental cases it is from two to seventy-live (usually 
six in eight ) days, according to condition-. The duration varies with 
the species of animals attacked, their age, and general condition. The 
average duration in the horse is reported as less than two months, 
though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two 

week-. 

" For a more detailed discussion of this disease sec Salmon & stiles. 1902, 
Emergency report on surra <Bul. 42, Bureau Animal Industry, Y . S. Dept 
Agric, Wash., pp. L-152, iii, r s. 1-112. Reprinted in Eighteenth Annual Report 
(for I'.Mii |, Bureau of Animal Industry, pp. 41-182, flgs. 1-112. 

548 



SURRA. 549 

METHOD OF INFECTION. 

All evidence now available seems to indicate that surra is strictly a 
wound disease, namely, that the parasite may enter the body only 
through a wound of some kind. Apparently by far the most common 
method is through wounds produced by biting flies, whose mouth 
parts are moist with the infected blood of some animal bitten by the 
same flies immediately previous to biting the healthy animal. Crows 
may also transmit the infection by pecking at sores on a diseased 
animal, soiling their beaks with blood, and transferring this infected 
blood to a healthy animal. Likewise, if a scratch is made on a horse 
and then infected blood is rubbed on the scratch, the horse will be- 
come diseased. If, in experiment, infected blood is fed to a healthy 
animal, the latter may contract surra in case it has an abraded or 
wounded spot in the mouth ; but if no part of the lining of the 
alimentary canal is wounded, infection does not take place. Thus 
dogs and cats may contract the disease by wounding the lining of the 
mouth (as with splinters of bone) while feeding on the carcasses of 
surra subjects. All available evidence indicates that under normal 
conditions of pregnancy the disease is not transmitted from mother 
to fetus. 

There is a popular view that surra may be contracted by drinking 
stagnant water and by eating grass and other vegetation grown upon 
land subject to inundation, but there is no good experimental evidence 
to support this view. Probably the correct interpretation of the facts 
cited in support of this theory is that biting flies are numerous around 
bodies of stagnant water and in inundated pastures; hence that a great 
number of possible transmitters of the disease are present in these 
places. 

SYMPTOMS. 

Symptoms of the disease as observed when contracted naturally. — 
The invasion of this disease is usually marked by symptoms of a 
trivial character; the skin feels hot, and there may be more or less 
fever; there is also slight loss of appetite, and the animal appears 
dull and stumbles during action ; early a symptom sometimes appears 
which may be the first intimation received of the animal's indisposi- 
tion, and which, as a guide to diagnosis, is of great importance; it 
is the presence of a general or localized urticarial eruption. If the 
blood be examined microscopically, it may be found to present a 
normal appearance; but in the majority of cases a few small, rapidly 
moving organisms will be observed, giving to the blood, as it passes 
among the corpuscles, a peculiar vibrating movement, which if once 

a This summary of symptoms is based upon work by Lingard, as summarized in 
the Emergency Report. (See footuote on page 548.) 



550 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

observed will not easily be forgotten. IT the parasite has not been 
discovered in the blood for some days, the symptoms mentioned above 
may be the only ones noticed, and. as a rule, when treated with febri- 
fuges, the horse quickly improves in health and the appetite returns. 
This condition does not last for more than a few day-, when the 
animal is again observed to present a dull and dejected appearance, 
and on examination well-marked symptoms are found; the skin is 
hot, the temperature more or less elevated — 101.7° to 10i° F. ; the 
pulse full and frequent — 56 to 64 beats per minute; the visible mu- 
cous membranes may appear clean, hut the conjunctival membranes, 
especially those covering the membrana uictitans, are usually the seat 
of dark-red patches of ecchymosis, varying in size in differenl an- 
imals. There is more or less thirst and slight loss of appetite; the 
animal eats its grain and green grass, but leaves all or a portion of 
the hay with which it has been supplied. At the same time there 
are slight catarrhal symptoms present, including lachrymation and a 
little mucous discharge from the nostrils. Occasionally at this period 
of the disease the submaxillary glands may be found enlarged and 
perhaps somewhat tender on manipulation. One symptom is mark- 
edly absent, namely, the presence of rigors or the objective sign of 
chilliness. In addition, it will be noted that there is some swellingand 
edema of the legs, generally between the fetlock and the hock, which 
pits but is not painful on pressure, and in case of horses there may 
be present also at this stage of the disease some swelling of the sheath. 
When the fever and concomitant symptom- have declared themselves 
for a short period, one thing becomes especially noticeable in every 
animal attacked, namely, the rapidity with which it loses flesh. If 
the blood has been examined microscopically during the second period 
of fever, at first a few parasites will have been observed in it, which 
day by day increase in number and reach a maximum, where they 
remain for a varying period, or at once suddenly or gradually disap- 
pear during the period of apyrexia. After the fever and the accom- 
panying symptoms have for the second time been present for some 
days —the period varying from one to six — the animal is found to 
have lost the dull, dejected appearance and to look bright. The tem- 
perature has fallen and. in some cases, has attained normal or even 
subnormal limits. The visible mucous membrane- are dean, and the 
conjunctival petechia' begin to fade; the pulse, however, will be found 
to be weak and thready in character, but the appetite excellent, and. 
in fact, if it were not for the loss of flesh and slight edema of the 
legs, there would be little to show that the animal was sick. But 
unfortunately this condition does no! continue for any length of time, 
\'->\- again the temperature is elevated; in the course of a few hours 
the thermometer registers a still higher degree, the animal is dull and 
dejected, and by the following day the visible mucous membranes 



STJRKA. 551 

present a yellow tinge ; large ecchymoses, dark in color, appear on the 
conjunctival membranes, the action of the heart is irritable, the pulse 
full and quick, or at times intermittent, and regurgitation may be 
observed in the jugulars, the breathing is quickened, and the individ- 
ual respirations are shallow. On watching an animal in this condi- 
tion it may be noticed that it takes 7 to 8 very short inspirations, and 
these are followed by a much more prolonged and sonorous one ; at the 
same time the breathing is more abdominal than thoracic in character. 
( )n examination of the legs it will be found that the swelling and 
edema have increased considerably, and that on the under surface of 
the abdomen, where it was previously confined to the sheath, it has 
now commenced to spread forward along the subcutaneous tissue 
between the skin and the muscles. During the whole of this time the 
appetite will have varied little, and the evacuations will be only 
slightly, if at all, altered in character. In the blood a repetition of 
the previous events takes place, the parasites make their appearance 
and increase to a maximum and again suddenly or gradually disap- 
pear, according to the length of the fever period. These periods, 
alternating with and without fever, may go on for a considerable time. 
The progress of the disease is variable and greatly depends upon the 
condition of the animal attacked, the weak one succumbing very rap- 
idly, but each return of the fever brings with it, as a rule, an increase; 
in the severity of the symptoms. There is increased yellowness of the 
membranes, fresh crops of petechias on the conjunctiva, a collection of 
gelatinous material at the inner angle, which at times becomes red in 
color from an admixture of blood, and which on microscopic exami- 
nation is found to contain a varying number of the surra parasites; 
increased swelling and edema of the extremities and abdomen, which 
now extends between the fore limbs and up the chest. During this 
time the wasting has been steadily progressive, especially of the mus- 
cles of the back and those surrounding the hip joint and the glutei. 
Toward the termination of the disease it will be noticed that an 
animal is disinclined to move, and when made to do so there will be 
manifest loss of power over the hind quarters, somewhat simulating 
a slight partial paralysis, and the hind quarters of the animal reel 
from side to side. In connection with this it may be noted that there 
is frequently present paralysis of the sphincter ani and a dilated 
condition of the anus. These symptoms taken together point to some 
interference with the normal functions of the spinal cord in the lower 
dorsal and lumbar regions, and are probably due to pressure caused 
by an exudation within the spinal membranes. In many eases shortly 
before death the heart's action becomes exceedingly violent, shaking 
the whole frame at each beat, so that the sound can be heard at some 
distance from the animal. In some of these eases the animal may 
suddenly drop dead; in others the emaciation and weakness become 



552 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

so pronounced thai the animal falls to the ground, and, after a diort 
struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal 
Palls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain, 
struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very 
hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient's strength, and for 
a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again, 
and this continues until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is 
voracious. 

Symptoms of the disease as observed in experimentally inoculated 
animals. — Twenty-four hours after the subcutaneous injection of a 
small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority of cases, a small 
circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is noticed at the seal 
of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the tumor has increased 
in size and is accompanied by some edema : it presents a certain 
amount of tension of the parts involved, and is generally tender on 
manipulation. These conditions continue to increase, until by the 
fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches in one direction by 
2 or 3 in the other, and raised to the extent of an inch or an inch and 
a half above the surrounding tissues, or in some cases the tumor pre- 
sents an almost circular form throughout. It will be also found 
that, if the tumor be firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but can be lifted 
up from the subcutaneous tissue. According- to the nature and 
a mount of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly present them- 
selves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded until, varying 
from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at the seat of inocu- 
lation will be found to have lost a certain amount of its tension and 
tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema will gradually 
begin to grow less, until finally, after a period of ten to fourteen days. 
the only sign left of the former swelling will be slight thickening of 
the skin over the point of the injection; but at the moment when the 
tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat of inoculation become 
suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost clinical importance 
takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite of surra enters the 
blood of the general circulation. 

The temperature on the day of inoculation, and. in fact, for several 
days afterwards, may remain normal in character, there being only a 
few degree- difference between the morning and evening observations. 
In other cases there may be a slight rise from the firsl evening, and a 
gradual progressive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation 
shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally 
takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104° or 105.8° F. This 
elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on 
the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be 
noticed, and in addition there will be petechia' on the conjunctival 
membranes, lachrymation, a slight mucous discharge from the uose, 



. SURRA. 553 

and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and 
perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period 
of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or 
nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is 
every appearance of its return to health; but in a few days the animal 
again appears dull and half asleep; the temperature becomes elevated, 
and a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the 
primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is 
observed. 

DIAGNOSIS. 

Certain symptoms (anemia, fever, petechia*, ravenous appetite, 
extreme emaciation, high mortality, etc.) would naturally give rise to 
a suspicion of surra. The positive diagnosis should, however, be 
made with a microscope. In case of suspected surra no delay in con- 
firming or disproving the suspicion should be permitted. 

TREATMENT. 

No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous injections of 
Fowler's solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but relapses occur. 
In view of the great economic importance of this disease, it would 
not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic cases should they 
occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals should be slaugh- 
tered immediately and their carcasses promptly burned. 



OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. 

By John R. Mohler, V. M. I 1 .. 
Chief of Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. 

N vrn:i: OF THE DISEASE. 

Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly 
and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the cal- 
careous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged, soft- 
ened, and porous hone. It is particularly manifest in the bones of the 
head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws, thereby 
giving rise to the terms "bighead" and "swelled head," which are 
applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all ag -. 
classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all -oil. 
dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but 
in certain regions, such as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, India, 
Hawaii, and in this country it seem- to be enzootic, several cases 
usually appearing in the Mime stable or on the same farm, and numer- 
ous animals being affected in the same district. In the United States 
the disease has been found in all the States bordering the Delaware 
River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England States, and 
in many of the Southern States, especially along the coast in regions 
of low altitude. In Europe the disease appears t<> be quite rare, and 
is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease which is not 
uncommon among cattle of that continent. However, the opinion 
that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia can not be accepted, nor can 
the infrequency of the former among European horses and the fre- 
quency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on the argu- 
ment which has been presented, namely, that the better care which 
horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the South- 
west, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been 
observed by the writer among range cattle, no case of osteoporosis of 
the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter 
animals are given no more attention than the cattle. 

The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective that 

if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar line of 

treatment should prove equally ellieacious. However, this is not tie 1 

fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on old, 

55 1 



OSTEOPOROSIS, OE BIGHEAD. 555 

worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating- feed 
lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water with a 
lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the disease. 
But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most hygienic 
stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of bone-forming 
feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the drinking water. 

CAUSE. 

The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although various 
theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, others more 
or less plausible; but none of these has been -established. Thus the 
idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and grazing 
in pastures where the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will 
cause the disease has been entirely disproved in niany instances. 
Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheuma- 
tism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones, 
terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious 
has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has 
been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made b}^ inoculating 
the blood of an affected horse into normal horses without results. A 
piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt 
was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the jaw of a normal 
horse, but without reproducing the disease. Petrone believes that the 
Micrococcus nit r/ji runs causes osteomalacia in man as a result of its 
producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and 
when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced. 
It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causa- 
tive factor will be discovered for osteoporosis. 

Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin due to 
climatic conditions, and divides the island of Hawaii into two districts, 
in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where bighead is 
very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely visited by 
rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals from the wet 
to the dry district is followed by immediate improvement and fre- 
quently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both good and bad 
stables take the disease, but in the dry district no unfavorable or unlry- 
gienic surroundings produce the affection. As both native and im- 
ported horses are equally susceptible, there is no indication of an 
acquired immunity to be observed. 

Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing blood 
from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has suggested that 
the causative agent may only be transmitted by an intermediate host, 
as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to this method of 
spreading East African coast fever, although blood inoculations, as in 
osteoporosis, are always without result. We know that coast fever is 



556 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

infectious, :m<l that it can not be transmitted by blood inoculations, 
but is conveyed with remarkable case by ticks coming from diseased 
cattle. That the cause has not been observed may be accounted for 
by its being invisible even to the high magnification of the microscope. 
On some farm- and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a 
number of cases following- one after another. On one farm of thor- 
oughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the aged 
horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm in Vir- 
ginia a large proportion of the horses for several years were diseased, 
although the cows and sheep of thi> farm remained unaffected. 

SYMPTOMS. 

The commencement of the disease is usually unobserved by the 
owner, and those symptoms which do develop are generally not well 
marked or are misleading unless other cases have been noted in the 
vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms remain so 
vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be present 
itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock become 
affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the long bones 
are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first observed, while 
if the dorsal or lumbar vertebrae are affected indications of a strain of 
the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first symptom to be 
noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular appetite or 
other digestive 1 disturbance, and with a tendency to stumble while in 
action. These earlier symptoms, however, may pass unobserved, and the 
appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness without any visi- 
ble cause ma} T be the first sign to attract attention. This shifting and 
indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then the other, is very 
suggestive, and is even more important when it is associated with a 
tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the absence of a desire 
to get up, or the presence of evident pain and difficulty in arising. 

About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the 
face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will 
be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently 
involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the 
bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower c(\^e of the 
molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be 
identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time 
and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse. 
Asa resuU mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth 
become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows causes 
balls of food to form which drop out of the mouth into the manger. 
Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be seen, caus- 
ing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about midway 
between the eyes and the nostrils. In >ome cases the nasal bones also 



OSTEOPOROSIS, OR BIGHEAD. - 557 

become swollen and deformed, which, together with the bulging- of 
the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the reason for 
the application of the term bighead. 

Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these 
alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occa- 
sion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the limbs, 
while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the reluc- 
tance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for- long 
periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly, and if 
urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament torn from 
its bony attachments, especially in the lower bones of the leg. An 
affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer to frac- 
ture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise. 

The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and 
the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed "hidebound," 
with considerable "tucking up" of the abdomen. The horse shows a 
short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer and more 
restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in founder is 
assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal at this 
stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several days at a 
time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures arc not uncommon in 
consequence of attempts to arise, which complications, in addition to 
emaciation, result in death. 

The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extend- 
ing from two or three months to two years. The termination of the 
disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment 
and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early stages 
of the malady. 

LESIONS. 

As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues involved. 
The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by the dimin- 
ished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the increase in 
the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the medullary cavity, 
and the enlargement of the network of spaces in the spongy tissue, the 
absorptive changes following the course of the Haversian system. In 
this process of absorption there are formed within the substance of the 
bone areas of erosion, indentations, or hollow spaces of irregular shape. 
These spaces increase in size and become confluent, causing an appear- 
ance resembling some varieties of coral. The affected bone may be 
readily incised with a knife, the cut surface appearing finely porous. 
This porous area is soft, pliable, and yields easily to Ihe pressure of 
the finger. It has been shown b} r chemical analysis that the bone of 
an osteoporotic horse, when compared with that of a normal horse, 
shows a reduction in the amount of fat, phosphoric acid, lime, and 



558 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 

soda. l»n( a sligh< increase in organic matter and silicic acid. The 
bones lose their yellowish-white appearance, becoming gray and 

brittle. The affected b< s may be those of any region or portion of 

the body. Besides the change already noted in the bones of the face. 
the ends of the long hones, such as the ribs, are involved, and may be 
sectioned, though not so readily as the facial hones. The bones of the 
vertebrae are also frequently involved, necessitating greal care in cast- 
ing ahorse, as the writer has seen several cases of broken backs in 
casting such animals for other operations. The marrow and cancel- 
lated tissue of the long hone-- may contain hemorrhages and soft gelat- 
inous material or coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually 
normal, bui a catarrhal condition of the gastro-intestinal tract may be 
noted as a result of the improper mastication, resulting from the 
enlargement of the jaws and soreness of the teeth. 

TREATMENT. 

The affected animal should he immediately placed under new condi- 
tions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse has been stable 
\\-d, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or three months, 
preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been contracted 
while running on pasture, place the animal in the stable or corral. In 
the early stages of the disease beneficial results have followed the 
supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water. One peck of 
lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water added from time 
to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight expense. This 
treatment may be supplemented by giving a tablespoonful of pow- 
dered hone meal in each feed, with free access to a large piece of rock 
salt, or the bone meal may be given with four tablespoonfuls of 
molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing mineral salts, such 
as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cotton-seed meal, may prove beneficial 
in replenishing the bony substance that is being absorbed. Cotton- 
it ed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should lie 
fed carefully. The animal should not he allowed to work at all during 
the active stage of the disease, nor should it be used for breeding 
purposes. 



SHOEING. 

By John W. Adams, A. B., V. M. D.. 

Prof essor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department, University 

of Pennsylvania. 

Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the 
feet and in irregularities of gait which may render a horse unservice- 
able, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with 
a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs. 

In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can 
only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of 
facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of 
the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious conse- 
quences of improper shoeing. 

Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn some- 
thing of its structure and of the natural movements of its component 
parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the nor- 
mal and to apply the proper corrective. 

GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 

The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which — the long 
pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end — form a 
continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the 
fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or 
" shuttle,"' bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the 
coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The 
short pastern projects about H inches above the hoof and extends 
about an equal distance to it. (See also page 369.) 

The pasterns and the coffin bone are held together by strong fibrous 
cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not 
to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones. 
The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect, because, while 
the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single 
plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible. 

The bones are still further bound together and supported by three 
long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe, 
passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone 
just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this 
tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof 
flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the 

559 



5G0 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

pasterns and are railed //, vors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns 
and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the 

upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between 
the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and 
attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin hone. These two ten- 
don- not only Ilex, of fold up, the foot as the latter leave- the ground, 

during motion, hut at rest assist the suspensory Ligament in support- 
ing the fetlock joint. 

The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint 
through the long axes of the two pastern- and coffin bone. This 
imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin 
bone, should always he straight — that i-. never broken, either forward 
or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when 
observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the 
long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to 
the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long 
pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly 
at the middle of the toe. 

Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coflin bone 
forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the 
tendon that attaches to the under surf ace of the coflin hone (perforans 
tendon), and. therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and 
backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal 
position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side. i- now broken for- 
ward ; that is, the long pastern i> less steep than the toe. and the heel- 
are either too long or the toe is too short. < )n the other hand, raising 
the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not 
only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly 
horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fet- 
lock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The 
foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward — an indication 
that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too 
low. 

The ' lastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the ?<>/< ral cartilages 
and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly 
four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side ^i' the foot, extending 
from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to 
a distance of an inch or more above the vd<j:r of the hair, where they 
may he felt by the linger-. When sound, these plates are elastic and 
yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes 
may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and un- 
yielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, 
elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the -pace between the lateral car- 
tilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving a- a 
buffer to disperse -hock when the foot is set to the ground. It ex- 



ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 561 

tends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, 
and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. 
Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels 
to the ground before other parts of the foot — conclusive proof that 
the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render 
harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground. 

The horn-producing membrane, or " quick," as it is commonly 
termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the " derm," or true 
skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm (foot skin). The 
pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar 
cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered 
by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or 
hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly sup- 
plied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm 
cf the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of 
horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm, 
so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface 
soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath, 
lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the 
corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the 
hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities 
possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, 
claws, etc. 

The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite 
it firmly to the foot. 

There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when 
the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic band, a narrow 
ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along 
the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This 
band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnishlike layer of glis- 
tening horn, which forms the surface of the wall, or " crust,' 1 and 
whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from 
the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encir- 
cling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the 
heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to be- 
come lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet pro- 
duces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflected portions produce 
the " bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning 
forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy leaves, 500 to GOO in number, 
parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the 
lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole. 
They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the 
deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between 
the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they 
dovetail. (4) The fleshy sole, which covers the entire under surface 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 36 



562 DISEASES or THE lit 'USE. 

of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is 
produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy' frog, which covers the 
under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog. 

The horny box, or hoof, consists of wall and bars, sole and frog. 
The wall is all thai part of the hoof which is visible when the fool i-; 
on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three 
layers— the periople, the middle Layer, and the leafy layer. 

The bars (see fig. 1' ) are forward prolongations of the wall, and 
arc gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the 
wall and a bar is called the "buttress." Each bar lies against the 
horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, 
so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates 
or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and 
the walls of the quarters. The lower holder of the wall is called the 
" bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By 
dividing the entire lower circumference of the Avail into five equal 
parts, a toe. two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The 
"heels/' strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of 
the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is 
usually more slanting than the inner, and the more slanting half of >< 
hoof is always the thicker. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the 
toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses 
it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there i- much 
less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters. 
The homy sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed, 
i> concave and about as thick as the Avail at the toe. It is rough, un- 
even, and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being 
loosened and cast off. Behind, the sole presents an opening into 
which are received the bars and horny frog; This opening divides the 
>ole into a body and two wings. 

'Idie periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall 
and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross- 
section of the leafy horn layer of the wall, and of short plugs of horn 
which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy Leaves. This 
while line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from 
the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the 
white line all nails should he driven. 

Tin frog, secreted by the pododcrm covering the plantar cushion 
or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies 
as a -oft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the 
edges of the sole ju-t in front of the bars. A broad and shallow de- 
pression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as 
they pas- backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the 
middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, 
which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should 



MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 563 

rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge 
of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the 
under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures 
assists in bearing the body weight. 

With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely. 
The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the 
sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller 
flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of 
the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft horn struc- 
tures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under 
natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic, 
absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard, 
brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and 
tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and fri- 
able or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and 
the harder (drier) the horn, the more slowly does it transmit extremes 
of temperature. 

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. 

A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and 
the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than 
when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a 
foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are 
continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never 
at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when 
the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest 
descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An 
expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the 
coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies 
between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of 
the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of 
the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are 
more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. 

The changes of form occur in the following order : When the foot- 
is set to the ground the body weight is transmitted through the bones 
and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navic- 
ular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the 
short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral carti- 
lages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion. 
This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to ex- 
pand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting 
against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands 
toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and 
the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and 
increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the 



5G4 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart, Of course, when 
the lateral cartilages are ossified not only is no expansion of the 
quarters possible, bul frog pressure often leads to painful compres- 
sion of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pres- 
sure is therefore contra-indiwitcd in lameness due to sidebones (ossi- 
fied cartilages). Under the descenl of the coffin-bone the horny sota 
sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the 
frog, and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these 
changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because 
in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they 
are more marked in lure hoofs than in hind hoofs. 

The movement of the different structures within the foot and the 
changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the 
health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by 
regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof. 
Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing 
decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and some- 
times lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and 
spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil, 
albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses 
continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in 
shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and 
apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface, 
so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contrac- 
tion of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we 
need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reason- 
able work and his hoofs proper care. 

GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 

All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal 
rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount 
of blood supplied to the pododerm, or " quick." Abundant and reg- 
ular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, 
going barefoot, plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing 
the overgrowth of hoof and regulat ing the bearing surface, by increas- 
ing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into 
the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality; while 
lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof 
hinder growth. 

The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month. 
Hind hoof- grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod <>nes faster than 
-hod one-. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet 
to the ground, though influenced to a slighl degree by the precited 
condition-, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the 
ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn grow- down 



GROWTH OF THE HOOF. 565 

in eleven to thirteen months, at the side wall in six to eight months, 
and at the heels in three to five months. We can thus estimate with 
tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such 
defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. 

Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause 
of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof — 
that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined 
for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of 
excessive length. The long toe becomes " dished " — that is, concave 
from the coronet to the ground — the long quarters curl forward and 
inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of 
the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked 
foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be 
allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for 
but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articu- 
lar ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure 
to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight 
leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during 
the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb. 
If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown 
and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from 
their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved 
improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we 
might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, " splay-footed,'' 
" pigeon-toed,'' cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses. 

If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too 
long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be 
unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground 
first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper 
level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this 
point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents 
wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath 
the high (long) side than elsewdiere, so that by the time the shoe is 
worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be re- 
peated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will 
grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is relatively 
anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the 
hoof, and the ultimate result will be a " wry," or crooked foot, 

THE (ARE OF UNSHOD HOOKS. 

The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs 
will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to 
time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the 
sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the 
w r all. 



566 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoof-. so that ovory 
Eour to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge 
of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts 
of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof 
washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should he provided. 
Hoofs that are becoming "awry" should have the wall shortened 
in Mich a manner a- to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately 
produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limh. 

CHARACTERISTTeS OF A HEALTH? HOOF. 

A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and ia 
not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression 

with pincers. The coronet is 
soft and elastic at all points 
and does not project beyond 
the surface of the wall. The 
wall (fig. 8) is straight from 
coronet to ground, so that a 
straightedge laid against the 
Avail from coronet to ground 
parallel to the direction of 
the horn tubes will touch at 
every point. The wall shouhl 
he covered with the outer 
varnishlike layer (periople) 
and should show no cracks or 
clefts. Every hoof shows 
'• ring - formation, " but the 
rings should not he strongly 
marked and should always 
run parallel to the coronary 
band. Strongly marked ring- 
formation over the entire, wall 
is an evidence of a weak hoof, 
hut when limited to a part 
of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs 
of the heels should he full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole 
dig. 1) should he well hollowed out, the white line -olid, the frog 
well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the. 
spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars 
straight from the buttresses toward the' point of the frog, and the 
buttresses themselves so Ear apari as not to pre— against the branches 
of the frog. A hoof cam not be considered healthy if it presents 
reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line. bar-, or frog. 
thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The 
lateral cartilages should yield readily to linger pressure. 




Pig. 1.— Ground surface of aright fore hoof of the regu~ 
lar form: a, a, wall; n-'i, the toe; a-b, the side walls' 
h,i, tin; quarters; .-, ,-, the bars; •'. d, the buttri saes] 
'. lateral cleft of the frog;/, body of thesole; g, g',g" 
leafy layer (white line) of the toe and hars; h, body 
of the frog; /, i, branches of the frog; /;, /.-, horny bulbs 
of the heels; I, middle cleft of the frog. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOOF. 



567 



VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS. 

As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an 
equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little 
study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of 
every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two 
pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side; 
and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in 
front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch 
as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that 
is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards 
the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological 
shoeing. 





FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IX PROFILE. 

Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind, 
their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the 
regular position (fig. 2), the 
base-wide or toe-wide position 
(fig. 3), or the base-narrow po- 
sition (fig. 4). 

By the direction of the im- 
aginary line passing through 
the long axes of the two pas- 
terns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we deter- ^ 
mine whether or not the hoof 
and pasterns stand in proper ' "^^JSggl^""^ 

mutual relation. Fig. 2. — Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular 

T . i 7 . 7 . . standing position. 

In the regular standing posi- 
tion (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in 
the base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and out- 
ward, and in the base-narrow 
position (fig. 4) it runs ob- 
liquely downward and inward. 
Viewing the foot in profile, 
we distinguish the regular po- 
sition (fig. 5/>) and designate 
all forward deviations as acute- 
angled (long toe and low heel, 
fig. 5a), and all deviations 
"^^^l, ^"^eSrssS^ ~~ backward from the regular 

Fig. 3.— Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide (steep toe and lli°"ll heel fi *. 
standing position. .. 

DC) as steep-toed, or stumpy. 

When the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the 

foot-axis should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall 

at the toe should have the same slant. 





568 



im.-i;asi;s OF TilF. HOUSE. 



.1 front hoof of tin regular standing position. — The outer wall is a 
little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower 

holder of the outer quarter describes the are of a smaller circle — thai 
i-. is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight fulls 
near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole 
bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of 
!.") to 50' and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The 

toe points straight ahead, 
and when tin- horse is mov- 
ing forward in a straight 
line the hoof- are picked 
up and carried forward in 
a line parallel to (he mid- 
dle line of the body, and 
are set down flat. Coming 
straight toward the ob- 
server I lie hoofs seem to 

Fig. 4.— Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow rise ;ind fall pernciidicu- 
standing position. 

larly. 

A hoof of the base-wide position is always awry. The outer wall is 
more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter 
more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than 
the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof. 
In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the 
ground it breaks over the inner toe. is carried forward and inward 





Fig. 6. — a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing 
the mosl desirable degree of obliquity (45°); c, side view of a stumpy, or "upright," fore foot; 
obliquity above 50°. In a, '». c, note particularly the relation between the length <>f the shoe and 
the overhanging of the hi I Note also the to 

close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the 
ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. Horses that 
are toe-wide ("splay-footed"' — toes turned outward) show all these 
peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked 
degree and are therefore more prone to " interfere" when in motion. 
A hoof of //< baS( -narrow position is awry, hut not to so marked a 
degree as the base-wide hoof. The inner wall is usuallv a little more 



EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFORE SHOEING. 569 

slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the 
outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer 
quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight 
falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof 
breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some 
distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the 
ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus 
moves in a circle whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight 
called " paddling.'' A base-narrow horse whose toes point straight 
ahead frequently '"interferes," while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed) 
animal seldom does. 

A regular hoof (fig. 55), viewed from one side, has a straight foot- 
axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°. The weight 
falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of 
the quarters. 

An acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has a straight foot-axis inclined at 
an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The weight falls more largely 
in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in 
contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in 
the regular hoof. 

In the upright, or stumpy, hoof (fig. 5c) the foot-axis is straight 
and more than 55° steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to 
heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of 
the heels than in the regular hoof. 

Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely 
upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the 
ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the 
quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly 
" cupped " sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and 
fine-grained, tough horn. 

Hind hoofs are influenced in shape by different directions of their 
pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the 
toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is 
two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave, 
the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than in front 
hoofs. 

EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING. 

The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and posi- 
lion of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the 
form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribu- 
tion, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves 
the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the 
ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent 
shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected. 
The animal must, therefore, be observed both at rest and in motion. 



570 



LSES <>r THE HORSE. 



At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the 
long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward 
and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base-nar- 
row Coot)? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an im- 
nginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the 
ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But 
if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as 
hould be, I >ul is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that 
either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner 
wall is too short (low). On the contrary, if the center line of the long 
pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at 
the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long- or the 
outer wall too short. 

The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three 
paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the 
size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal, 




I'm. C.—a. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a 
toe. The amount of horn to he removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot- 
axis is denoted by a dotted line; b. side view of a properly balanced foul, with a 
straight fool axis of desirable slant: c. side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken 
forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to he removed 
in order to straighten the toot axis is shown by a dotted line. 

and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight- — that is, docs 
the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the 
hoof stand steeper than the long pa-tern (fig. 6c) '. In which case 
the loot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually, 
that the quarters are either too high or that the toe i- too short. 

If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot- 
axis is broken backward, in which case the toe i- too long or the quar- 
ters are too 1<>\\ t short). In figure- 6a and »'>< the dotted lines passing 
from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must lie 
removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 66. 
Note also the length of tin' -hoe. 

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the 
outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality 
of the fro-', form of the .-hoe. wear of the shoe, and the number and 



EXAMINATION OF HOOF BEFOEE SHOEING. 571 

distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower 
border of the wall ? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full on the inside 
that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on 
crooked? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short, or so wide 
at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the 
hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are 
the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the 
expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are the}^ too large? 
driven too "fine" or too high? These are questions which the 
observer should put to himself. 

Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable 
evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground 
since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable " pointers " in lev- 
eling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the 
ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof 
is set flat to the ground, the " grounding- wear " of a shoe should be 
uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due 
to scouring at the moment of " breaking over."" Everything which 
tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the " grounding wear " 
more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which 
shorten the stride — as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork, 
or disease — bring the grounding wear nearer the toe. 

An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the 
grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels. 

If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than 
the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle 
line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater 
weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more 
often the case, the section of Avail above the thinner branch has been 
too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short 
(too low). " One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an 
unnatural course of the wall are often found together." How much 
an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars ! 

The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace, 
from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the " breaking 
over," the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the 
ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always 
move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there 
is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two 
hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few 
steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us 
the. line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base- 
wide, or base-narrow form. 

No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work 
till he has made the preeited observation.-.. 



5 i 2 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE. 

After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch- 
cutter (" buffer ") and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is 
ciii ically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then 
drawn or punched <> u i and the hoof freed of dirt and partially de- 
tached horn. The farrier has now to " dress " the overgrown hoof to 
receive the new shoe : in other words, he has to form a base of support 
so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface 
shall he set Hat upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor 
Leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury. Tf he has 
made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the 
wall requires removal and what part must, be left, for he already 
knows the direction of the foot-axis and the wear of the old shoe, and 
has made up his mind just where and how much horn must he re- 
moved to leave the hoof of proper Length and the foot-axis straight. 

A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp 
nippers, and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The con- 
cave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may he pared out around the 
point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of ex- 
foliation. The wall should be Leveled with the rasp till its full 
thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of 
the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the " bearing surface <>!' 
the hoof." The bars if long may be shortened, but never pared <>n the 
side. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the 
wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, s<> as 
not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. ••Corns." or 
hi'iiises of the pododerm. are usually a result of leaving a thick mass 
of dry. unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be 
touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to 
form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously 
by the exfoliation of superficial Layers of horn, while if the frog is 
dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying 
moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than 
to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below 
the Level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain 
shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses. 
The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp 
to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the 
fool is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make 
sure that the line- hounding the hoof correspond with the direction 
of the long pastern. 

THE SHOE. 

The shoe i- an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because 
il interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the 



THE SHOE. 573 

foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground. 
Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in 
preserving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider 
the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of 
hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be con- 
sidered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, bor- 
ders, " fullering," nail holes, and clips. 

Form. — Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it 
is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape ; but for every 
hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the 
shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and 
hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily 
distinguishable. 

Width. — All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of 
the branches. The average width should be about double the thick- 
ness of the wall at the toe. 

Thickness. — The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last 
about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases. 

Length. — This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in 
profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has long overhanging heels, 
and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in 
the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the 
shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double 
the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 56 
and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness 
of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project 
more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover 
the entire " bearing surface " of the wall. 

Surfaces. — The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as 
the " upper," or " hoof surface," of the shoe. That part of the hoof 
surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the " bearing- 
surface " of the shoe. The " bearing surface " should be perfectly 
horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full 
thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of 
the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly 
fiat, except that it may be turned up at the toe (" rolling-motion " 
shoe, fig. 5 a, h, c). The surface between the bearing surface and the 
inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent 
pressure too far inward upon the sole. This k ' concaving," or " seat- 
ing," should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more 
concave. As a rule, strongly " cupped " soles require no concaving 
(hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs). 

Borders. — The entire outer border should be beveled under the 
foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to 
interferino-. 



574 



DISEAS ES OP THE Hi 



/•'////, ring. — This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It 
should pass through two-thirds of the thickness <>i' the -hoc. be clean, 
ami of uniform width. It i- of advantage in that it makes the shoe 
fighter in [proportion to Its width, and. by making the ground sur 
somewhat rough, tend- to prevent slipping. 

Nail holes. — The -hue must be so " punched " that the nail holes will 
fall directly on the white lino. They should be confined to the fore 
half <d' front -hoc-. l>nt may occupy the anterior two-third- of hind 
-hoc.-. For a medium-weight -hoc three nail hole- in each branch are 
sufficient, hut for heavier shoe-, especially those provided with long 
calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four 
on the outside may do. 




( 'lips.- 
lar ears 



-These are 
drawn up 



half-eireu- 
froni the 



outer edge of the -hoe either at 
the toe or opposite the side wall. 
The height of a clip should 
equal the thickness of the -hoe. 
though they should he even 
higher on hind shoes and when a 
leather sole is interposed be- 
tween shoe and hoof. Clips 
cure the -hoe against shifting. 
A side clip should always he 
drawn up on that branch of the 
shoe that first meet- the ground 
in locomotion. 

SPE< I A!. PECULIARITIES or THE 
CHIEF CLASSES or SHOES. 



Fig. 7.-Lcft fore hoof of regular form, shod with (1) A -hoe tor a regular hoof 



a plain "I allseed " shoe. Note the distribution (fiov. 7 and 8) fits when it- 
of Che nails, length of the fuller (crease}, and . ... . .. 

the closeness of the ends of the shoe to the OlltcF border follow- the wall 

branches of the feoff. closely in the region of the nail 

holes and from the la-t nail to the end of the branch gradually pro- 
ject- beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an inch and 
extend- hack" of the buttresses tin amount equal to the thickness of 
the shoe. The shoe must he straight, linn, air-tight, it- nail hole- 
directly over the white line, and it- branches far enough from the 
branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches 
of the shoe must he of equal length. 

In lilting a -hoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of 
the hoof, hut in base-wide and base-narrow hoof-, which are of 
irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the 
hoof, hut also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent 



THE SHOE. 575 

distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight 
falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where 
the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface of sup- 
port should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of 
weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of 
support. 

(2) A shoe for a base-wide hoof should be fitted full on the inner 
side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner 
side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch arc 
placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward 
toward the toe. 

(3) A shoe for a base-narrow hoof should be just the reverse of the 
preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the 
inner. 

(1) A shoe for an acute-angled hoof should be long in the branches, 
because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot. 
The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe 
up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a). 




Fig. 8. — Side view of boof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring 
formation running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of 
the shoe, and the under .bevel at the toe and heel. 

(5) A shoe for a stumpy hoof should be short in the branches, and 
for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where 
the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward. 

In many cases, especially in draft horses where the hoofs stand 
very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand 
out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer 
branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that 
an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet 
the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand, 
must be fitted as "close" as possible. The principal thought should 
be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side. 
Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular 
fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme 



576 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 

outward bend. Care should be taken, however, (hat in fitting the 
shoe •• full " at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the 
quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be 
pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will he obviated 
by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punch- 
ing it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line. 

HOT FITTING. 

Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to so adjust 
a cold shoe to the hoof that it will lit, as we say." air-tight." Though 
the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful con- 
sequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of 
the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow 
heat he held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too 
thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may he done. Bui a shoe at 
a dark heat may he pressed against a properly dressed hoof long 
enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn 
that should he lowered, without appreciable injury to the hoof, and 
to the ultimate benefit of the animal. 

The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They 
should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the 
shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the 
wall destroys the leasl possible amount of horn, has a wide and 
strong clinch, lather than a narrow one. which would he formed near 
the point of the nail. and. furthermore, has the strongest possible 
hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right 
angle to the grain (horn tuhes) of the wall than if driven high. 
Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches. 

THE BAR SHOE. 

The bar shoe (fig. 0) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give 
the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and 
development when by reason of disuse it has become atrophied. It 
gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to re- 
lieve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced 
inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the 
average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but 
lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole 
with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight 
of the hody over the entire ground surface of the hoof. 

THE RUBBER PAD. 

Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes, 
and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the 
hard and slippery pavements of our large cities are in use in differ- 



RUBBER PADS FOR SHOES. 



577 



ent parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron 
shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred 




Fig. 9. — An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and posi- 
tion of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to 
interfere with the expansion of the quarters. 



rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results, 
durable, easily applied, and effective. 



It is cheap, 




'--ft 



Fig. 10.— A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The toe and outer heel calks cut at right 
angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be 
perpendicular. 

In the large cities of England and the United States rubber puds 
are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite effi- 
cient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements, 
H. Doc. 795, 59-2 37 



578 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 



though not so effective on ice. 
the besl of many rubber pads. 




Figure 11 is an illustration of one of 
The rubber is stitched and cemented 
to a leather sole and is secured by 
the nails of a three-quarter shoe. 
Such a pad will usually last as 
long as two shoes. They may be 
used continuously, not only with- 
out injury to the hoof, but to its 




Fig. 11.— Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a 
rubber pad and " three-quarter" shoe. (Ground 
surface.) 

great benefit. The belief, unsup- 
ported by evidence, that rubber 
pads " draw the feet " keeps many 
from using them. A human foot 
encased in a rubber boot may even- 
tually be blistered by the sweat 
poured upon the surface of the 
skin and held there by the imper- 
vious rubber till decomposition 
takes place with the formation of 
irritating fatty acids; but there is 
no basis for an analogy in the hoof 
of a horse. 

Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with 
" interfering " and " forging," are given herewith. 



Fig. 12. — A narrow right fore hoof of the base- 
wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a 
plain "dropped-crease" shoe to prevent the toe- 
cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the 
inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which 
was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof 
along the striking section. Note the inward 
bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped 
crease, the distribution of the nails, the long 
"full" inner branch, and the short "close" 
outer branch. 



SPECIAL SHOES. 



579 




Fig. 13. — Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner hranch has 
no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position 
of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the 
inner branch. 




Fig. 14. — Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner nailless branch 
has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters 
of the hoof are equidistant from the ground. 



580 



DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. 




FIG. 15. — Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the " hreaking over" (quicken 
the action) in a "forger." Note the short shoe, heel calks inclined forward, and the 
rolled toe. 




FIG. Hi. — Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to 
prevenl injury to the tore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the 
short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When 
such a hoof lias »rown more toe, the toe calk can he dispensed with and the Bhoe set 
farther forward. 



SPECIAL SHOES. 



581 




Fig. 17. — A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are 
placed too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form, but the weight is properly 
placed. 




Fig. 18. — Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore 
feet. The profile of the shoe shows a "roll" at the toe and "swelled" heels. The 
weight is well placed, but "rolling" the toe and raisin- the heel's lower action. The 
shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe. 



Abdomen — Page. 

dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172 

dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 

limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment 159 

sheath, and penis, s wel ling, cause and treatment 149 

Abnormal presentations at birth 176-181 

Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 161 

Abscess — 

and inflammation of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- 
ment 249 

in lung and suppuration, symptoms 135 

Abscesses — 

acute, description and treatment 475 

cold, description and treatment 476 

description 474 

in throat, treatment 46 

A cariasis, or mange, note 450 

A ca ri, parasites of eye 273 

Achorion schonleini, vegetable parasite of skin, description. 450 

Adams, John W., chapter on "Shoeing" 559-581 

Air embolism, or air in veins, note 247 

Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, or azotemia, symptoms, pre- 
vention, and treatment 82 

Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment 210, 272 

Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment 159 

Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 508, 510 

Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system 190 

Anemia — 

spinal, symptoms and treatment 214 

of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203 

Aneurism — 

description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 242 

one form caused by Strongylus vulgaris 243 

Anidian monsters, or moles, description 158 

Animal parasites, description of kinds 450 

Ankle — 

and fetlock, skin, note 371 

fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369, 430 

Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 

Anthrax, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 529-532 

Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treat- 
ment 200 

Arteries — 

description 227 

diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology, 

and treatment 240 

583 



584 INDEX. 

Page. 
Arteritis, or diseases of arteries, <>r endarteritis, description, symptoms, and 

treatment 240 

Artery — 

constriction, description 244 

rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 242 

Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, ami synovitis, cause and treatment 332 

Ascaris < quorum, intestinal worm, note 60 

Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment 71, 172 

Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 

A tin roma of veins and arteries, description 242 

Autumn mange, description and treatment 152 

Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 

prevention, and treatment 82 

Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 

prevention, and treatment 82 

Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering 28 

Bar shoe, uses 569 

Bees, wasps, and hornets, stints, treatment 454 

Beets as feed 41 

Bighead (osteoporosis) — 

chapter by John R. Mohler 564-558 

symptoms, lesions, and treatment 556 

Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 

Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and 

treatment 103 

Birth, abnormal presentations at 176-181 

Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment 449 

Bladder — 

calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting Hi!) 

diseased growths, symptoms and treatment 92 

eversion, description and treatment 93 

inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 

irritable, cause and treatment 91 

neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment B 

paralysis, description and cause 210 

paralysis, symptoms and treatment V 

stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and 

treatment 100 

worms of kidney 87 

Bleeding 

after castration, treatment 14!) 

from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment 136 

from nose, causes and treatment 112 

or flooding from womb, treatment 184 

skin eruptions, or Dermatorrhagia i>tirti»iiic,t, description and treatment... 441 

Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment 4.">7 

bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

Blood- 
circulation of heart, description 226 

clots m walls of vagina 187 

medicines administered into veins .">:! 

of penis, extravasation, causes and treatment 145 

spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment :!.">! 



INDEX. 585 

Blood vessels — Page. 

and heart, diseases, remarks 228 

heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter hy M. R. Trumbower 225-250 

physiology and anatomy 225 

Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82 

Blowing, high, description 119 

Bluebottle (Lucilia csesar), note 453 

Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331 

Boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259 

Boils— 

or Dermatitis gran ulosa 442 

or furuncles, description and treatment 439 

Bone- 
hip, fracture, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and 

treatment 317 

premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment 312 

spavin. (See Spavin. ) 
Bones — 

cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325 

cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310 

diseases, descrijjtion 284 

dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336 

of face, fractures, description, and treatment 311 

of fetlock and foot, description 369 

of hip, fractures, causes 167 

one system of locomotion 275, 277 

sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 328 

Botfly, treatment 61 

Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 

Brain — 

and membranes, inflammation, description 192, 193 

and nervous system, anatomy and physiology 190 

anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 203 

compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 

concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention 202 

congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and 

prevention 197 

description 191 

dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 

Bran, value as feed 40 

Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treat- 
ment 332 

Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 

Bronchitis — 

and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment .. 129 

chronic, description and treatment 119 

Broncho-pleuro-pneunionia, description 135 

Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment... 129 

Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399 

Bruises, description and treatment 464 

Burns and scalds, treatment 455, 471 

Calculi- 
biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment 74 

or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55 



&86 INDEX. 

Calculi Continued. Page. 

or stones, in Btomach, Bymptoms and treatment 54 

renal, description, symptoms, and treatment 98 

uretral, description and treatmenl H'.i 

urinary, classification MS 

urinary, stone, or gravel 94, 97 

Calculus — 

in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treat- 
ment 103 

<>r stone, and tumor in bladder 169 

urethral, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment 102 

vesical, >tone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms and 

treatment 100 

Calk wounds, description and treatment 379 

Callosities — 

description 448 

sloughing, horny sloughs, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 170 

Cancer, epithelial, or epithelioma, description and treatment 44'.) 

Canker — 

of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 

or grease (inflammation of heels with sebaceous secretion), description, 

causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 

Cannon bone — 

description 369 

fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 325 

Capped elbow, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354 

( lapped hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 

Capped knee, description, cause, treatment, etc 357 

Cardiac enlargement, or hypertrophy of heart, description, symptoms, and 

treatment 237 

( Caries i if cartilage, or tumor of haw, description and treatment 261 

( 'arrots, value as feed 41 

( Cartilaginous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 389 

( artilago nictitans, or winking cartilage (the haw), description 253 

( Castration — 

bleeding after operation, treatment 1 49 

by covered operation, method Id 

of cryptorchids, or ridglings, method 148 

of mare, method 151 

of stallions, methods 147 

pain after operation, treatment 149 

Successful method 148 

( 'at a tact, remarks 272 

» Catarrh — 

chronic, nasal gleet, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
ment 108 

gastro-intestinal, or indigestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 61 

nasal, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107 

Cerebral hemorrhage, or apoplexy, causes, symptoms, and treatment 200 

< Cerebritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 193 

Cerebro-spinal meningitis, so-called, or forage poisoning, causes, symptoms, 

and treatment 217 

( n. ical choke, description 47, 48 

Chaff for feeding 39 



INDEX. 587 

Page. 
Chaps on knee and hock, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and 

treatment 443 

Chest walls, wounds penetrating, description and treatment 140 

Cheyletus, or Gamarus pteroptoides, animal parasites 452 

Chicken acari, or Dermanyssus galling, animal parasite of skin 452 

Chigoe, or jigger — 

larva? of Trombidium, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin 452 

(Pulex jienetrans), bite, treatment 454 

Choke- 
cervical, description 47, 48 

pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, symptoms and treatment 47 

Chorea, or St. Vitus dance, description and treatment 207 

Chorioptes — 

bovis (Symbiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi), animal parasite of skin 452 

spathiferus, animal parasite of skin 452 

Choroiditis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 265 

Chronic bronchitis, description and treatment 119 

Circinate ringworm, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, treatment 449 

Circulation organs, methods of examination 15 

Clubfoot, description ::72 

Clysters, or enemas, description and manner of administering 32 

Cocked ankles, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment 374 

Coffinbone, description 370 

Coffin joint, description 370 

Cold in head, or nasal catarrh, symptoms and treatment 107 

Colic — 

bloat, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

cramp, or spasmodic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 

flatulent, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

obstruction, caused by impaction of large intestine, symptoms and treat- 
ment 52 

specific forms ■....." 50 

wind, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

worm, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 

tympanitic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

Compression of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 201 

Concussion — 

of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 202 

spinal, causes and treatment 215 

Conformation — 

of foot, faults 372 

of horse 12 

Congenital scrotal hernia, description and treatment 67 

Congestion — 

active, causes 485 

and inflammation of skin, description of kinds 434 

and inflammation of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
ment 142 

description 484 

of brain, or megrims, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 197 

of heart, description and symptoms 240 

of lungs, description and treatment 120 

of skin, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 

of skin, with small pimples, or papules, description and treatment 436 



5 8 8 INDEX. 

( 'ongestion — Continued. ra^r. 

of spine, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213 

passive, causes 486 

Conjunctivitis, or external ophthalmia, description, causes, symptoms, ami 

treatment 262 

Constipation, or costiveness, cause and treatment 54, L60 

( '(institution of horse • 12 

Consumption, or tuberculosis, note 136 

Convulsions, description and treatment 2 6 

( lord — 

spermatic, strangulated, cause and treatment 14'.) 

spermatic, tumors, causes and treatment L50 

spinal, description 192 

( Jornea — 

ulcers, treatment 265 

White specks and cloudiness, cause and treatment 265 

Corn, or maize, how to feed 

Corns, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 394 

Coronary band, description .!7 1 

( 'oronet — 

description 370 

fractures, symptoms and treatment 327 

( 'osti ven ess, or constipation, cause and treatment 54, 100 

( Jough, chronic, description 139 

Cracked heels, or scratches, causes, and treatment 443 

Cramp — 

of hind limb, or spasm of thigh, description and treatment 205 

or spasmodic, colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 

( 'ramps — 

of hind limbs, cause and treatment 160 

or spasms, causes and treatment 205 

Cranial hones, fracture-, causes, symptoms, and treatment 310 

( 'rauium. tumor within, description of kinds 204 

Crookedfoot, description 373 

Croup and diphtheria, mistakes in diagnosis 117 

( 'rypt ore! lids, or ridglings, castration, method 148 

Curb of hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment :!4!t 

Cutaneous quit tor. description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 381 

Cuticle, description 432 

Cyanosis of newborn foals, description 240 

Cystic calculus, or stone in Madder, description, symptoms ami treatment 100 

Cystic disease of wall of womb, or vesicular mole, description and treatment . . 158 
( hjsticercus fistularis — 

parasite of bladder 87 

? parasite of eye 273 

i iystitis, inflammation of bladder, or urocystitis, symptom- and treatment 90 

l>< rmanyssus gallina , or chicken acari, animal parasite of skin iv_> 

Dt rmatitw granulosa, or boils 442 

1 1. rmatocoptes equi, animal parasite of skin 452 

Dermatodectes equi, animal parasite of skin 452 

/' incttophagus equi, animal parasite of , -kin 452 

l>, rmalorrhagia parasitica, or bleeding skin eruptions, description and treatment. 441 

Dermis, or true skin, description 432 



INDEX. 589 

Diabetes — Page, 
insipidus, diuresis, polyuria, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symp- 
toms, and treatment 79 

mellitus, saccharine diabetes, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, 

and treatment 80 

Diaphragmatic hernia, description 70 

Diaphragm — 

rupture, cause and symptoms 141 

spasm, or thumps, description and treatment 141, 205 

Diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment 62 

Digestive organs, diseases, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 34-74 

Digestive tract, examination 21 

Dilatation— 

of heart, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 

of veins, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment 247 

Dioctophyme renale, roundworm of kidney 87 

Diphtheria and croup, mistakes in diagnosis 117 

Diseases, general, chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper 482-545 

Dislocations and luxations of bones, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 330 

Distemper. (See Strangles. ) 

Diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, 

symptoms, and treatment 79 

Douche, nasal, in administering medicines 31 

Dourine, or maladie du coi't, description and treatment 146 

Drench, methods 29 

Dropsies, synovial, remarks 330 

Dropsy — 

general, of fetus, description and treatment 173 

of abdomen in foal, or ascites, description and treatment 172 

of abdomen, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment 71 

of amnion, description and treatment 159 

of brain, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 

of limbs, perineum, and abdomen, description and treatment 159 

of scrotum, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144 

of womb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 158 

Dysentery, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 64 

Echinococcus — 

parasite of eye 273 

parasite of kidney 87 

Ectropion and entropion, or eversion and inversion of eyelid, causes and 

treatment 259 

Eczema, or inflammation with blisters, description and treatment 437 

Edematous pneumonia, definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524 

Elbow — 

capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 354 

muscles, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment !4:! 

Electric shock, causes, description, and treatment 224 

Electuries, or pastes, description and manner of administering 29 

Embolism — 

air, or air in veins, note 247 

and thrombus, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 

Embryotomy of parts at abnormal births 182 

Emphysema, or swelling of fetus with gas, description and treatment 173 

Encephalitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 193 

Endarteritis, and arteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 240 



590 INDEX. 

Page. 
Endocarditis, or inflammation of lining membrane of heart, cause, symptoms, 

and treatment 229 

Enemas, or clysters, description and manner of administering :;■_' 

Engorgement colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 50 

Enteritis, definition 50 

Entropion and ectropion, or inversion and eversion of eyelid, causes and 

treatment 259 

Epilepsy, or falling fits, symptoms and treatment 207 

Epithelial cancer, or epithelioma, description and treatment 449 

Epithelioma — 

degeneration of penis, or papillioma 145 

or epithelial cancer, description and treatment 449 

Equine variola, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 524 529 

Eruptions, bleeding skin, or Dermatorrhagia parasitica, description and treat- 
ment Ill 

Erysipelas, description, cause, and treatment 446 

Erythema, congestion of skin, or red ellloresence, description and treatment. 134 
Esophagus — 

dilatation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 49 

or gullet, treatment for foreign bodies 40 

stricture, description and treatment 49 

Eversion — 

and inversion of eyelid, or ectropion and entropion, causes and treatment. 259 

of bladder, description and treatment 93 

or womb after difficult parturition, treatment 185 

Exostosis, cause, description, and treatment 284 

Extravasation of blood of penis, causes and treatment 145 

Eye- 
diseases, chapter by .lames Law . 2. r >]-:_'7:'. 

examination 254 

haw, i >r winking cartilage, description 253 

lachrymal apparatus 254 

muscles, description 253 

palsy of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment . . . 272 

parasites affecting, description of different kinds ~7'.\ 

watering, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedies. 261 
Eyeball- 
description 251 

tumors affecting 272 

Eyelid- 
diseases, description of different kinds 255 

inflammation, causes and treatment 257 

inversion and eversion, or entropion and ectropion, causes and treatment. 259 

sty, or furuncle (boil), affecting, description and treatment 259 

torn, or wounds affecting, description and treatment ... 260 

warts and tumors affecting, description and treatment 260 

Face hones, fractures, description and treatment 311 

Facial paralysis, cause and symptoms 210 

Fainting, or syncope, symptoms and treatment 237 

Farcy — 

and glanders, definition, causes, etc 532 5 15 

chronic, symptoms 538 

Fatty degeneration of heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 

Favus, or honeycomb ringworm, description and treatment 450 



INDEX. 591 

rage. 

Feces, impaction of rectum 170 

Feet, interfering, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373 

Femur, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 323 

Fetlock— 

and ankle skin, note 371 

and foot bones, description 369 

ankle, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe 369-430 

joint, description 370 

knuckling, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347 

sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376 

Fetus- 
adherent to walls of womb, description, cause, and treatment 171 

excessive size 171 

general dropsy, description and treatment 173 

or foal, prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 

swelling with gas, or emphysema, description and treatment 173 

tumors, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment 174 

Fever, description, causes, and treatment 493-498 

Fibrous bands constricting and crossing neck of womb, description and treat- 
ment 170 

Fibrous constriction of vagina or vulva, cause and treatment 171 

Filaria — 

conjunctivae, parasite of eye 273 

equina, parasite of eye 273 

hsemorrhagica, threadworm causing skin disease 441 

irritans, parasite causing summer sores, description and treatment 442 

multipapillosa, threadworm causing bleeding skin eruptions 441 

palpebralis, parasite of eye 273 

Fistulas, causes, symptoms, and treatment 477-481 

Fits, falling, or epilepsy, symptoms and treatment 207 

Flatfoot, description 372 

Flatulent colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

Flea, or pulex, prevention and treatment of bite 454 

Flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria), note 453 

Flexor— 

metatarsis, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 

pedis perforans, description 371 

pedis perforatus, description 371 

tendons or their sheath, and suspensory ligaments, sprains, cause, symp- 
toms, and treatment 345 

Flies, method of attacking horses, prevention and treatment for bite 453 

Flooding, or bleeding from womb, treatment 184 

Flyblow, or grubs in skin, description and treatment 453 

Foal- 
contractions of muscles, description and treatment 173 

monstrosities, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 174 

natural presentation 164 

prolonged retention, cause and treatment 160 

water in head, or hydrocephalus, description and treatment 172 

Foals, newborn, cyanosis affecting, description 240 

Food- 
kinds to give 36 

musty and moldy, effect on digestive organs 38 

preparation 41 



592 INDEX. 

Foot. $ also HOO Page. 

anatomical review 369,559 

and fetlock bones, description 369 

ranker, causes, Symptoms, and treatment 392 

conformation, faults 372 

fetlock, ami ankle, diseases, chapter by A. A. I [olcombe 369^130 

mange, description and treatment 452 

punctured wounds, description, Bymptoms, and treatment 400 

sand-cracks, causes, symptoms, and treatment 403 

sole, description 371 

Forage poisoning, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, Bymptoms and treatment 217 

Forearm, fracture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 321 

Founder, or laminitis— 

acute, subacute, and chronic, description 421 

complications 422 

curative measures 428 

description and causes 414 

following parturition, cause 188 

sequel i if superpurgation 64 

symptoms 417 

treatment and prevention 426 

Fractures — 

causes and symptoms 297 

description of different kinds 297 

of different bones, description 310 

prognosis and treatment 303 

Frog— 

bruises, causes, symptoms, and treatment 399 

description ■"■71 

Frostbites, description, symptoms, and treatment 379 

Furuncle — 

or boil, description and treatment 439 

"i sty (boil), of eyelid, description and treatment 259 

Galls, harness, or sit fasts, description and treatment 448,470 

( rallstones, or biliary calculi, symptoms and treatment 74 

Gamarus pteroptoides and cheyletus, animal parasites of skin 4"i2 

< langrene — 

or mortification, causes 136 

or mortification, description, symptoms, and treatment 473 

( ias, swelling of fetus, or emphysema, description and treatment 173 

< rastritis, definition 50 

Gastro-enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment 65 

Gastro-intestinal catarrh, or indigestion, description, cause, symptoms, and 

treatment 61 

Generative organs, diseases affecting, chapter by James Law 142 189 

< Jen i to-ui inarv passages, method of medication 33 

Gestation, extra-uterine, description, symptoms, ami treatment 157 

< danders — 

acute, symptoms 541 

and farcy, definition, causes, etc 532 5 15 

chronic, symptoms '- - - 540 

t reatment 544 



INDEX. 593 

Glands — Page. 

lymphatic, description, symptoms, and treatment 249 

sebaceous, description 433 

sweat, description 434 

Gleet — 

inflammation of urethra, of urethritis, symptoms and treatment 93 

nasal, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 108 

Glossitis, description and treatment 45 

Glottis, spasm, description . . 205 

Glycosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or inosuria, causes, symp- 

t< >ms, and treatment 80 

( I rai ns f< >r feeding 39 

Grasses, important feed 41 

Gravel — 

urinary calculi, or stone, causes 97 

urinary calculi, or stone, description 94 

Grease, or canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 

Grubs — 

or flyblow, description and treatment . 453 

under the skin, description and treatment 453 

Grunting, testing 118 

Gullet, or esophagus, treatment for foreign bodies 46 

Gunshot wounds, description and treatment 469 

Gut-tie, volvulus, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 

Guttural pouches, description and treatment. 128 

Hairs on skin, description 433 

Ilarbaugh, W. H., chapter on " Diseases of respiratory organs" 104-141 

Harness galls, or sitfasts, description and treatment 448, 470 

Harvest bug, larva? of Trombidium, Leptus americanus, jigger (chigoe), animal 

parasite of skin 452 

I law- 
tumor, or caries of cartilage of the eye, description and treatment 261 

or winking cartilage of the eye, description 253 

Hay , kinds for feeding 38 

Heart — 

adventitious growths, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 

anatomy and physiology : 22a 

and blood vessels, diseases, remarks 228 

blood vessels, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower.. 225-250 

circulation of blood, description 226 

congestion, description and symptoms 240 

dilatation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 

fatty degeneration, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 239 

hypertrophy, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treat- 
ment ... ." 2:;7 

inflammation of lining membrane, or endocarditis, cause, description, 

symptoms, and treatment 229 

inflammation of muscular structure, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, 

and treatment 229 

inflammation of sac inclosing, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, and treat- 
ment 233 

inflammatory diseases, description and treatment 229 

H. Doc. 79... 59-2 38 



594 INDEX. 

Heart— Continued. page. 

palpitation, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 

rupture, description and cause 240 

valvular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment 235 

weakness, causes, symptoms, and treatment l'40 

Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, or heat stroke, symptoms, pathology, treatment, 

and prevention 199 

I Leaves, broken wind, <>r asthma, definitions, symptoms, and treatment 137 

Heels — 

contracted, or hoof-bound, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 403 
cracked, scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, description, causes, and 

treat n icnt 443 

inflammation, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, 

causes, symptoms, and treatment 444 

Hematuria, or bloody urine, cause and treatment 82 

Hemiplegia, <>r paralysis of one side, or half the body, description and symp- 
toms 208 

Hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, 

prevention, and treatment 82 

Hemoptysis, or bleeding from lungs, causes, description, and treatment 136 

Hemorrhage — 

pr< »cess of healing and method of treatment 461 

spinal, symptoms and treatment 214 

Hemorrhoids, or piles, description and treatment 66 

Hemostasia, description and treatment - 460 

Hepatitis, or inflammation of liver, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 

Hernia — 

congenital scrotal, description and treatment 67 

diaphragmatic, description 70 

inguinal, description, symptoms, and treatment 67 

of womb, description and treatment 168 

or rupture, description of different kinds 67 

scrotal, cause 67 

umbilical, description and treatment 69 

ventral, description and treatment 68 

Herpes, description and treatment 441 

High blowing, description 119 

Hip- 
bone, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, and treatment 317 

bones, fractured, causes _ 167 

joint, luxation, description and treatment 338 

lameness, description, symptoms, and treatment 344 

Hock— 

and knee, chaps or scratches, description, causes, and treatment 443 

capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment 359 

curb, cause, symptoms, and treatment 349 

fractures, note . 325 

Bolcombe, A. A., chapter on " Diseases of ankle, fetlock, and foot" 369-430 

Honeycomb ringworm, or favus, description and treatment 450 

Hoof. (See also Foot. ) 

-bound, or contracted heels, description, causes, sympt on is, and treatment. . 403 

description 371 

growth 564 

healthy, characteristics 566 



INDEX.. 595 

Hoof — Continued. Page. 

physiological movements 563 

preparation for the shoe 572 

Hoofs — 

unshod, care 565 

various forms 567 

Hornets, bees, and wasps, treatment for stings 454 

Horny sloughs (sitfasts), or sloughing callosities, description and treatment- 448, 470 

Horsepox, or equine variola, causes, symptoms, and treatment 524-529 

Horses, anatomy, description 276 

Horseshoe. (See Shoe. ) 
Horse, sick — 

attitude and general condition indicative of disease 10 

conformation and constitution 12 

examination, chapter by Leonard Pearson 9-27 

history of diseases necessary in examination 10 

Huidekoper, Rush Shippen, chapter on "General diseases" 482-545 

Humerus, fractures, symptoms and treatment 320 

Hydrocele, or dropsy of scrotum, symptoms and treatment 144 

Hydrocephalus — 

or dropsy of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 203 

or water in head, of foal, description and treatment 172 

Hydrophobia. (See Rabies. ) 

Hydrothorax, treatment 134 

Hypertrophy of heart, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and 

treatment 237 

IL/poderma-lineata, note 453 

Icterus, jaundice, or yellows, description and treatment 73 

Impaction — 

of large intestine, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52 

of rectum with feces 170 

Indigestion, or gastro-intestinal catarrh, description, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 61 

Inflammation — 

acute, of kidneys, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment . . 84 

and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treatment. . 249 

and congestion of skin, description of kinds 434 

and congestion of teats and udder, symptoms and treatment 188 

and congestion of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. . 142 

chronic, of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86 

description, symptoms, termination, and treatment 487-493 

local, and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treat- 
ment 249 

of bladder, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 

of brain and its membranes, description 192, 193 

of eyelids, causes and treatment 257 

of heels, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes, 

symptoms, and treatment 444 

of lining membrane of heart, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp- 
toms and treatment 229 

of liver, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 

of membranes, a complication of influenza 505 

of membranes of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and treatment 211 



, r ) ( ,M; INDEX. 

Inflammation — Continued. Page. 

of muscular structure of heart, <>r myocarditis, Bymptoms, alterations, and 

treatment 229 

of nerve, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 21*3 

of pharynx, description 112 

of sac inclosing heart, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and 

treatment 233 

of substance of spinal cord, or myelitis, causes, symptom--, pathology, and 

t reatment 218 

of urethra, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 

of womb and peritoneum, symptoms and treatment 1ST 

with blisters, or eczema, description and treatment 437 

with pustules, description and treatment 438 

Inflammatory diseases of the heart, description and treatment 229 

[nfluenza, definition, symptoms, termination, complications, and treatment. 4H V 

Inguinal hernia, description, symptoms, and treatment 67 

Inhalation, manner of administering medicines 31 

Injections, methods of administering medicines 31 

InOSUria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitUS, or glycosuria, cause-, symp- 
tom--, and treatment 80 

Insufflation, description 31 

Interfering — 

and speedy cuts, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 362 

of feet, causes, symptoms, and treatment 373 

Intestinal — 

paralysis, cause 210 

worm, or Ascaris • quorum, note 60 

Intestines — 

and stomach, diseases, remarks 49 

calculi, or stones, description, symptoms, and treatment 55 

large, impaction, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment 52 

paralysis, description and treatment 56 

spasms 205 

Intussusception, or invagination, description, symptoms, and treatment 56 

Invagination, or intussusception, description, symptoms, and treatment 56 

Iritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265 

Irritation, nervous, of skin, or pruritus, description and treatment 441 

Jaundice, icterus, or yellows, description and treatment 7.'i 

Jaw, lower, fracture, description, causes, and treatment 312 

Jigger, or chigoe, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin 452 

Joint — 

hip, luxation, description and treatment 337 

shoulder, displacement, description and treatment 337 

Joints — 

diseases, note 329 

open, cause, prognosis, and treat ment 332 

Kidneys — 

acute inflammation, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 84 

chronic inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 86 

bladder worm and roundworm affecting 87 

tumors, note 87 

Knee — 

broken, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332 

capped, description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 357 

fracture, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 322 



INDEX. 597 

Knee — Continued. Page, 
or hock, chaps, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and treat- 
ment 44.'! 

Knees, sprung, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348 

Knuckling — 

of fetlock, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 347 

or cocked ankles, description, causes, and treatment 374 

Labor pains, premature, cause and treatment 166 

Lachrymal apparatus of eye — 

description 254 

obstruction, or watering eye, description and remedy 261 

Lameness — 

definition ; physiology and description 279 

how to detect the seat _ 283 

how to discover 280 

its causes and treatment, chapter by A. A. Liautard 274-368 

of hip, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 344 

of shoulder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 340 

Laminse, sensitive, description 372 

Laminitis, or founder. (See Founder, or laminitis.) 

Lam pas, description and treatment 44 

Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring, description and treatment 117, 210 

Laryngitis, or sore throat, description, symptoms and treatment 112 

Larynx, spasms, description and treatment 116 

Law, James — 

chapter on "Diseases of the eye" 251-273 

chapter on ' ' Diseases of the generative organs " 142-189 

chapter on "Diseases of the skin" .' 431-458 

chapter on ' ' Diseases of the urinary organs " 75-103 

Lead poisoning, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 

Leptus americanus, or harvest bug, animal parasite of skin 452 

Leucorrhea, description and treatment 188 

Liautard, A., chapter on "Lameness: Its causes and treatment" 274-368 

Lice, or pediculi, description and treatment for bite 454 

Ligament — 

suspensory, description 370 

suspensory, rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377 

Ligaments — 

description and functions 278 

suspensory, sprains, causes, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 345 

Limbs — 

hind, cramp, cause and treatment 159 

perineum, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159 

Linseed, ground, value as laxative 40 

Liver — 

diseases, remarks 71 

inflammation, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment 72 

rupture, causes, symptoms, and treatment 73 

Lockjaw, or tetanus, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219 

Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement, description 209 

Loins, sprains, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 367 

Lucilia ciesar, or bluebottle, and L. hominivorax , or screwworm fly, note 453 



598 INDEX. 

1 . 1 1 1 iur — • Page. 

abscess, and suppuration, symptoms 135 

fever, or pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment 1JL' 

Lungs — 

bleeding, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment L36 

congestion, description and treatment 120 

description 120 

Luxations and dislocations of hones, cause, symptoms, and treatment 336 

I lymphangitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 250 

Lymphatic — 

glands, local inflammation, and abscess affecting, description, symptoms, 

and treatment 249 

system, diseases, description ' 249 

Lymphatics, heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower. 225-250 
Madness, rabies, or hydrophobia, cause, symptoms, treatment, and preven- 
tion 222, 545 

Maize, or corn, how to feed 40 

Maladie du coi't, or dourine, description and treatment 14f> 

Mange — 

autumn, and mange of foot, description and treatment 452 

■ >r acariasis, note 450 

Mare — 

castration, method 151 

pregnant, hygiene 156 

sterility, causes and treatment 151 

Masturbation, or self-abuse, remedy 145 

Meat fly, or Musca vomitoria, note 453 

Medicines, methods of administering, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 28-33 

Megrims, or congestion of brain, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc. 197 

Melanosis, or black pigment tumor, description and treatment 449 

Membrane — 

lining, of heart, inflammation, or endocarditis, cause, description, symp- 
toms, and treatment 230 

of nose, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110 

Membranes — 

inflammation, a complication of influenza 505 

mucous, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13 

of brain, inflammation, description 192, 193 

of spinal cord, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment 211 

Meningitis — 

causes, symptoms, and treatment 193 

spinal, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 21 1 

Metatarsi, flexor, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 

Michener, Ch. B.— 

chapter on "Diseases of the digestive organs" 34-74 

chapter on "Methods of administering medicines" 28-33 

chapter on " Wounds and their treatment " 459-481 

Microsporon furfur, vegetable parasite of skin 450 

Mob ler, John R., chapter on "< Osteoporosis or bighead " 554 558 

Mole, vesicular, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158 

Moles, or an id i. m monsters, description 158 

Monstrosities in foal, description of kinds, causes, and treatment 175 

Moonblindness, or periodic ophthalmia, causes, symptoms, treatment 268 

Mortification, or gangrene. {See Gangrene.) 



INDEX. 599 

Page. 

Mouth, diseases, remarks 44 

Mucous ruembraues, visible, and skin may indicate disease 13 

Musca vomitoria, or meat fly, note 453 

Muscles — 

and tendons, diseases 340 

contraction in foal, description and treatment 173 

of elbow, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 

of eye, description 253 

one system of locomotion 275, 276 

Myelitis, or inflammation of substance of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 213 

Myocarditis, or inflammation of muscular structure of heart, symptoms, alter- 
ations, and treatment 229 

Nasal — 

catarrh, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment 107 

douche, used in administering medicines 31 

gleet, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 108 

polypus, description and treatment Ill 

Navel — 

discharge of urine, or persistent urachus, description and treatment 92 

string, constriction of a member, description 171 

Navicular — 

bone, description 370 

disease, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 409 

Neck of womb, twisting, description and treatment 168 

Nephritis, acute, or acute inflammation of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 84 

Nerve — 

inflammation, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 

tumor, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 

Nerves — 

injuries, description and treatment 216 

spinal, designations 192 

Nervous system — 

and brain, anatomy and physiology 190 

diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower 190-224 

examination 24 

Nettlerash, surfeit, or urticaria, description and treatment 440 

Neuritis, or inflammation of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 

Neuroma, or tumor of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 

Nose — 

bleeding, causes and treatment 112 

membrane, thickening, symptoms and treatment 110 

Nostrils, tumors and wounds, treatment 106 

Obstruction colic, cause 52 

Open joints. (See Joints. ) 

Ophthalmia — 

external, or conjunctivitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 262 

internal, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265 

periodic, or moonblindness, causes, symptoms, and treatment 268 

Optic nerve, paralysis, or amaurosis, cause 210 



600 INDEX. 

Page. 

Orchitis, or congestion and inflammation of testicles, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 142 

Osinnominatum, or fracture of hipbone, description, symptoms, and treatment. 317 

i i- pedis, <>r third phalanx, fractures, cause and treatment 327 

( Osteoporosis, or bighead, chapter by John R. Mohler 554 558 

Ostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment L'M 

» Kerreaeh, description, symptoms, and treatment 378 

( Mini, inclosed, or tumors of fetus, description and treatment 174 

Palpitation of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment 236 

Palsy — 

of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment L'72 

Or paralysis, description and causes 208 

1 'ancreas and spleen, diseases, remarks 74 

Papilloma, epithelioma, or degeneration of penis 145 

1'apules, or congestion of skin with small pimples, description and treatment. 436 
Paralysis — 

facial, symptoms and cause; local paralysis 210 

general, cause 208 

of bladder, description and cause 8 

of hind legs, cause and treatment 160 

of intestines, cause 56, 210 

of one side or half the body, or hemiplegia, description and symptoms... 208 

of optic nerve, or amaurosis, cause 210 

of penis, cause and treatment L45 

of pharynx, description and treatment 46 

of rectum and tail, cause 210 

or palsy, description and causes 208 

transverse, of hind extremities, or paraplegia, description and symptoms. L'09 

treatment 210 

Paraphymosis and phymosis, description and treatment 150 

Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of hind extremities, cause and treatment.. 209 
Parasites — 

animal, of skin, description of kinds 450 

causing worm colic 59,60 

in eye, description of kinds 273 

specific kinds affecting urinary organs n? 

table, nf skin, description of kinds, symptoms, ami treatment 449 

Parasitic pityriasis, description and treatment 450 

Parturition — 

(1 iff erent presentations 176 

difficult, from narrow pelvis, cause and treatment 165, 166 

symptoms 164 

Pastern joint, description 370 

Paste-, or electuaries, description and manner of administering 29 

Patella- 
fracture, description 324 

pseudoluxations, descriptions, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338 

Pearson, Leonard, chapter on " Examination of a sick horse" 9-27 

Pediculi, or lice, description and treatment for hite 154 

IVU is — 

and vagina, tumors affecting, description and treatment lo7 

bones, fracture, different kinds 316 

narrow, cause i if difficult parturition, cause and treatment ld(> 



INDEX. 601 

Penis — Page. 

degeneration, papilloma, or epithelioma 145 

extravasation of blood and paralysis, causes and treatment 145 

sheath, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149 

warts, treatment 145 

Pericarditis — 

a complication of influenza •_ 505 

or inflammation of sac inclosing the heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment. 233 

Perineum, limbs, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment 159 

Periostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment 284 

Peritoneum and womb, inflammation, symptoms and treatment , 187 

Peritonitis — 

a complication of influenza 505 

description, symptoms, and treatment _ _ 70 

Phalanx, first, second, and third, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment. 326, 327 

Pharyngeal polypus, description and treatment Ill 

Pharyngitis, description and treatment 4 5 

Pharynx — 

inflammation, description 112 

paralysis, description and treatment 46 

Phlebitis, or diseases of veins, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment.. 246 

Ph ymosis and paraphymosis, description and treatment 150 

Physiology and anatomy of brain and nervous system 190 

Piles, or hemorrhoids, description and treatment 66 

Pills, or balls, description and manner of administering 28 

Pimples, small, or congestion of skin, description and treatment 436 

Pityriasis, or scaly skin disease, description and treatment 440 

Plantar cushion, description 372 

Pleurisy — 

a complication of influenza 505 

description, symptoms, and treatment 131 

Pleuro-dynia, symptoms and treatment 140 

Pleuro-pneumonia, description and treatment 135 

Plumbism, or lead poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 

Plyalism, or salivation, description and treatment 45 

Pneumonia — 

edematous, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc 520-524 

or lung fever, description, symptoms, and treatment 1 22 

Poisoning — 

albuminoid, or azotemia, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 82 

forage, or cerebro-spinal meningitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 217 

lead, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment 223 

Poll evil 477 

Polypus — 

nasal, description and treatment Ill 

pharyngeal, description and treatment Ill 

Polyuria, diuresis, diabetes insipidus, causes, symptoms, and treatment 77 

Pouches, guttural, description and treatment 128 

Poultry, acariasis, description and treatment 4n2 

Powders, manner of administering 28 

Pregnancy — 

duration 155 

mare, hygiene ... 156 

medication 1 54 



602 INDEX. 

Page. 

Premaxillary hone, fracture, description and treatment 812 

Preputial calculus, calculus in sheath, description and treatment 103 

I ''-c~ruiati.il is ;it birth, abnormal 176-181 

Pruritis, <>r nervous irritation of skin, description and treatment 441 

Pseudoluxations of patella, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 338 

Psoroptca "/hi, animal parasite "I" skin 451 

Psoroptic acariasis, description and treatment 451 

Pulex— 

or flea, prevention and treatment for bite 454 

penetrans, or chigoe, bite, treatment 454 

Pulse, how t«> count 15 

Purpura hemorrhagica — 

description, symptoms, and treatment 247 

or anasarca, causes, symptoms, and treatment 508 

Pustules, inflammation, description and treatment 438 

Quittor, description of different kinds 380 

Rabies, description, symptoms, and treatment 222, 545 

Rectum — 

and tail, paralysis, cause 210 

impact ion with feces 1 70 

method of ail ministering medicines 32 

Red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 

Renal calculi, description, symptoms, and treatment 98 

Respiratory organs — 

description 104 

diseases, chapter by W. II. Harbaugh 104-141 

methods of examination 17 

Retinitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 265 

Rilis, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment 315 

Ridglings, or cryptorchids, castration, method 148 

Ringbone, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 289,413 

Ringworm — 

circulate, or Tinea tonsurans, description, symptoms, and treatment 449 

honeycomb, or favus, description and treatment 450 

Roaring and thick wind, description and treatment 117, 210 

Roundworm of the kidney 87 

Rubber pads in shoes, uses 576 

Rupture — 

of an artery, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 

of diaphragm, causes and symptoms 141 

of flexor metatarsi, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 352 

of heart, description and cause 240 

of liver, cause, symptoms, and treatment 73 

of stomach, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51,52 

of suspensory ligament, description, symptoms, and treatment .".77 

of vagina, description and treatment 187 

or hernia, description of different kinds 67 

or laceration of womb, causes and treatment 186 

Saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, glycosuria, or inoBuria, causes, symp- 
toms, and treatment 80 

Sacrum, fractures, description and treatment 316 

Si. Vitus dance, or chorea, description and treatment 207 



INDEX. 603 

Page. 

Salivation, or plyalism, description and treatment 45 

Sand-cracks of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 405 

Sarcocele, description and treatment 143 

Sarcopliaga carnaria, or flesh fly, note 453 

Sarcoptes — 

mutatis, animal parasite of skin 451 

scabiei equi, animal parasite of skin 450 

Sarcoptic acariasis — 

description, symptoms, and treatment 450 

of fowls, description and treatment 451 

Scalds and burns, treatment 455, 471 

Scalma, symptoms, treatment, etc 515-518 

Scaly skin disease, or pityriasis, description and treatment 440 

Scapula, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment 319 

Scorpion and tarantula, treatment for sting or bite 455 

Scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, or cracked heels, causes and treatment. 443 

Screw-worm fly, or Luc ilia hominivorax, note 453 

Scrotal or congenital hernia, cause, description, and treatment 67 

Scrotum, dropsy, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment 144 

Sebaceous glands, description 433 

Self-abuse, or masturbation, remedy 145 

Sesamoid bones, fracture, cause, symptoms, treatment, etc 328 

Sesamoid sheath, inflammation, or navicular disease, description, symptoms, 

and treatment 408 

Sesamoids, description 369 

Sexual and urinary organs, examination 26 

Sheath- 
calculus, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description, treatment. 103 

of flexor tendons, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345 

penis, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment 149 

Shock, electric, description and treatment 224 

Shoe — 

bar, uses 576 

detailed description 572 

hot fitting 576 

Shoeing — 

chapter by John W. Adams 559-581 

preliminary examination 569 

preparation of the hoof 572 

rubber pads 576 

Shoes, special peculiarities of chief classes 574 

Shoulder — 

joint, displacement, description and treatment 337 

lameness, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 340 

Sick horse. (See Horse, sick.) 

Sidebones, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 291,411 

Sinuses, collection in, chronic catarrh, or nasal gleet, causes, symptoms, and 

treatment 108 

Sitfasts— 

or harness galls, description and treatment 470 

horny sloughs, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment 448 

Skin — 

and visible mucous membranes may indicate disease 13 

animal parasites affecting, description of kinds 450 



604 INDEX. 

Skin— Continued. Page. 

bleeding eruptions, description and treatment 441 

congestion, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment 434 

disease, scaly, or pityriasis, description and treatment 440 

diseases, chapter by James Law 431-458 

grubs under, description and treatment 153 

hairs, description 4:;:; 

inflammation and congestion, description of kinds 43 4 

nervous irritation, or pruritis, description and treatment 441 

of fetlock and ankle, m it c 371 

structure, divisions 432 

true, or dermis, description 41-52 

vegetable parasit< s, description of kinds, symptoms and treatment 449 

wounds, description of different kinds and treatment 456 

Sloughs, horny, sitfasts, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment. 448,470 

Snake bites, treatment 455 

S ile of foot, description .".71 

Sores, summer, caused by Filaria irritans, treatment 441,442 

Sore throat, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment 112 

Spasmodic or cramp colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 58 

Spasm — 

of diaphragm, or thumps, description and treatment 141,205 

of glottis or intestines, description and treatment 205 

of larynx, description and treatment 116 

of neck of bladder, causes, symptoms, and treatment 87,205 

of neck of womb, description and treatment 170 

of thigh, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment 205 

Spasms, or cramps, causes and t reatment 205 

Spavin — 

blood, hog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment 331 

description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 293 

Speedy cuts and interfering, description, symptoms, treatment, etc 362 

Spermatic cord — 

strangulated, cause and treatment 149 

tumors, causes and treatment 150 

Spinal — 

anemia, symptoms and treatment L' 14 

compression and concussion, cause, description, and treatment L'14 

c mcussion, causes and treatment 215 

congestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment 213 

cord, description 192 

cord, inflammation of membranes, causes, Bymptoms, treatment, etc 211 

cord, in Ham i nation of substance, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, treatment. 213 

hemorrhage, symptom, and treatment 214 

meningitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment 211 

nerves, designation 192 

tumors, symptoms and treatment 215 

Spleen and pancreas, diseases, remarks 74 

Splint, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment 286 

Sprain — 

of elbow muscles, causes, symptoms, and treatment 343 

ot fetlock, causes, symptoms, and treatment 376 

Sprains — 

description and treatment :!40 

of loins, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 367 



INDEX. 605 

Sprains — Continued. Pago, 
of suspensory ligaments and of flexor tendons or their sheath, cause, symp- 
toms, and treatment 345 

Sprung knees, cause, symptoms, and treatment 348 

Staphyloma, or bulging cornea, description and treatment 273 

Stallion- 
castration, methods ... 147 

sterility, cause and treatment 151 

Sterility in mare and stallion, cause and treatment 151 

Stiles, Ch. Wardell, chapter on ' ' Surra " 548-553 

Stomach — 

and intestines, diseases, remarks 49 

calculi, or stones, symptoms and treatment 54 

rupture, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 51, 52 

Stomatitis, description and treatment 45 

Stone — 

in bladder, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and 

treatment 100 

in urethra, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment... 102 

or calculus, and tumor in bladder 169 

urinary calculi, or gravel, description 94, 97 

Stones — 

or calculi, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment 55 

or calculi, in stomach, symptoms and treatment 54 

Strangles, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment 513-516 

Strangulated spermatic cord, cause and treatment 149 

Stricture — 

of esophagus, description and treatment 49 

of urethra, description and treatment 94 

Stringhalt, description, cause, and treatment 207, 364 

Strongylus — 

equinum, parasite of kidney _ 87 

equinus, intestinal worm 60 

vulgaris, intestinal worm 60 

vulgaris, worm causing one form of aneurism 243 

Sty, furuncle, or boil of eyelid, description and treatment 259 

Suffraginis, description 370 

Summer sores, caused by Filaria irritans, description and treatment 442 

Sunstroke, heat stroke, or heat exhaustion, symptoms, treatment, etc 199 

Superpurgation, description and treatment 63 

Suppositories, description and uses 32 

Suppuration and abscess in lung, symptoms 135 

Surfeit, nettlerash, or urticaria, description and treatment 440 

Surra — 

chapter by Ch. Wardell Stiles 548-553 

climatic conditions; animals affected ; and lethality 548 

diagnosis and treatment 553 

method of infection, symptoms 549 

Suspensory ligament — 

and flexor tendons or their sheaths, sprains, cause, symptoms, treatment. . 345 

description 370 

rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment 377 

Sutures, description and uses 461 

Sweat glands, description 434 



606 INDEX. 

Page. 
Symbiotes equi, Dermatophagus equi, <>r Chorioptes spathiferus, animal parasite of 

Bkin 452 

Sj Qcopc, or fainting, symptoms and treatment 237 

Synovial — 

dropsies, remarks . 330 

-.i.'-. diseases, description 330 

Synovitis, cause, prognosis, and treatment 332 

Tail and rectum, paralysis, cause 210 

Tarantula and scorpion, treatment for bite and sting 455 

Teats, sore, scabs, cracks, warts, cause and treatment 189 

Teeth- 
diseases; period of dentition 41! 

irregularities, remedies 43 

Temperament of horse 12 

Temperature, method of determining. 17 

Tendon sheaths, wounds, description and treatment 469 

Tendons — 

and muscles, diseases 340 

flexor, or their sheath, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment 345 

functions L'77 

lacerated, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment 350 

of foot, function 370 

Testicles — 

abnormal number; causes of degeneration 144 

or orchitis, congestion and inflammation, causes, symptoms, treatment.. 142 

Tetanus, or lockjaw, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment 219 

Thick wind and roaring, description and treatment 117 

Thigh, spasm, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment 205 

Thoracic choke, description and treatment 47,49 

Thoroughpin, blond spavin, and bog spavin, description and treatment 331 

Threadworms causing bleeding skin eruptions 441 

Throat- 
abscesses affecting, treatment 46 

sore, or laryngil is, description, symptoms, and treatment 112 

Thrombosis, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment 365 

Thrombus and embolism, description, symptoms, and treatment 244 

Thrush, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 392 

'Thui ii | is, or spasm of diaphragm, description and treatment 141, 205 

Tibia, fractures, symptoms and treatment 324 

Ticks, description and treatment 453 

Timothy, best hay for feeding 38 

Tinea tonsurans, or circinate ringworm, description and treatment 449 

Tissues, description 482 

Toothache, how to determine and treat 43 

Trichiasis, or turned eyelashes, description and treatment 260 

Trichophyton tonsurans, vegetable parasite of skin 449 

Trumbower, M. R. — 

chapter on "Diseases of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics" 225-250 

chapter on "I diseases of nervous system" 190-224 

Tuberculosis, or consumption, note 136 

Tumor — 

and calculus, or si one in Madder 169 

of haw, or caries of cartilege, description and treatment 261 



INDEX. 607 

Tumor — Continued. Page. 

of nerve, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment 216 

on spermatic cord, causes and treatment 150 

Tumors — 

and warts of eyelids, description and treatment 260 

black pigment, or melanosis, description and treatment 449 

in nostrils, treatment 106 

in vagina and pelvis, description and treatment 167 

of eyeball, remarks 272 

of fetus, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment". 174 

of kidneys, note 87 

of spine, symptoms and treatment 215 

of udder, cause and treatment 189 

or abnormal growths, cause of colic 57 

within cranium, description of kinds 204 

Twins, remarks _ 176 

Tympanitic colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

Udder— 

congestion and inflammation, symptoms and treatment 188 

tumors, cause and treatment 189 

Ulceration, description, causes, and treatment 474 

Ulcers on cornea, treatment 265 

Umbilical hernia, description and treatment 69 

Urachus, persistent, or discharge of urine by navel, description and treatment. 92 

Uremia, description, symptoms, and treatment 223 

Urethra — 

inflammation, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 

stone, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms and treatment 102 

stricture, description and treatment 94 

Urethral calculus, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms and treatment. . 102 

Urethritis, inflammation of urethra, or gleet, symptoms and treatment 93 

Uretral calculi, description and treatment 99 

Urinary — 

and sexual organs, examination 26 

calculi, classification 98 

calculi, stone, or gravel, description and causes 94, 97 

disorders, causes 75 

organs, diseases, chapter by James Law 75-103 

organs, parasites affecting 87 

organs, symptoms of disease 77 

organs, uses 75 

Urine — 

analysis 95 

bloody, or hematuria, cause and treatment 82 

discharge by navel, or persistent urachus, description and t reatment 92 

excessive secretion, diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, causes, symp- 
toms, and treatment 79 

how to examine 77 

of healthy horse, description 27 

Urocystitis, inflammation of bladder, or cystitis, symptoms and treatment 90 

Urticaria, nettlerash, or surfeit, description and treatment 440 

Vagina — 

and pelvis, tumors affecting, description and treatment 167 

rupture, description and treatment 187 




608 INDEX. 

rage. 

Vaginal walls, effusion of blood 169 

Valvular disease of heart, Bymptoms and treatment 235 

Varicocele, description and treatment 1-44 

Varicose veins, varix, or dilatation of veins, causes and treatment' 247 

Variola, equine, or horsepox, eauses, symptoms, and treatment 524-^529 

Veins — 

description 228 

dilatation, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment L'47 

diseases, or phlebitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment 246 

Ventral hernia, description and treatment 68 

Vertebrae, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment 313 

Vesical calculus, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, 

and treatment 100 

Vesicular mole, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment. 158 

Volvulus, gut-tie, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment 56 

Vulva, or vagina, fibrous constriction, cause and treatment 171 

Warts — 

and tumors of eyelids, description and treatment L'tiO 

description and treatment 448 

on penis, treatment 145 

Wasps, bees, and hornets, stings, treatment 454 

Water — 

impure, cause of disease; time to give 34 

in head, or hydrocephalus of foal, description and treatment 172 

Watering eye, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedy. 261 

Whistling, description 119 

Wind- 
broken, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment 137 

colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment 57 

Windgalls, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment 330,375 

Windpipe, description ' 128 

Winking cartilage, or cartilago nit-titans, description 253 

Womb — 

and peritoneum, inflammation, symptoms, and treatment. 187 

bleeding, or flooding, treatment 184 

dropsy, cause, symptoms, and treatment L58 

eversion, description and method of treatment 185 

hernia, description and treatment 168 

laceration, or rupture, causes and treatment L86 

neck, twisting, description and treatment 168 

Worm colic, description, symptoms, and treatment 59 

Worms, bladder, affecting kidneys 87 

Wounds — 

and their treatment, chapter by Ch. B. Michener 459-481 

gunshot, description and treatment 4»i u 

healing under a scab, treatment 462 

in nost rib, cause and treatment 106 

lacerated and contused, description and treatment 463 

penetrating walls of chest, description and treatment 140 

poisoned, description and treatment 47(1 

punctured, description, symptoms, and treat men t 400,465 

Yellows, jaundice, or icterus, description and treatment 73 

LrFe06 ^ 



